Abraham Lincoln and the Union

第1章

Inspiteofalapseofsixtyyears，thehistorianwhoattemptstoportraytheeraofLincolnisstillfacedwithalmostimpossibledemandsandstillconfrontedwitharbitrarypointsofview。Itisoutofthequestion，inabooksobriefasthismustnecessarilybe，tomeetallthesedemandsortoalterthesepointsofview。Intereststhatarepurelylocal，eventsthatdidnotwithcertaintycontributetothefinaloutcome，gossip，aswellasthemerecapriceofthescholar——thesemustobviouslybesetaside。

Thetaskimposeduponthevolumeresolvesitself，atbottom，intojusttwoquestions:Whywasthereawar?WhywastheLincolnGovernmentsuccessful?WiththesetwoquestionsalwaysinmindI

haveendeavored，ontheonehand，toselectandconsolidatethepertinentfacts；ontheother，tomakeclear，evenatthecostofexplanatorycomment，theirrelationsinthehistoricalsequenceofcauseandeffect。Thispurposehasparticularlygovernedtheuseofbiographicalmatter，inwhichthemainillustration，ofcourse，isthecareerofLincoln。Prominentasitisheremade，theLincolnmatterallbearsinthelastanalysisononepoint——hiscontrolofhissupport。OnthatthehistoryoftheNorthhinges。ThepersonalandprivateLincolnitisimpossibletopresentwithinthesepages。ThepublicLincoln，includingthecharacterofhismind，isheretheessentialmatter。

Thebibliographyatthecloseofthevolumeindicatesthemoreimportantbookswhichareatthereader"sdisposalandwhichitisunfortunatenottoknow。

"ThereisreallynoUnionnowbetweentheNorthandtheSouth……

NotwonationsuponearthentertainfeelingsofmorebitterrancortowardeachotherthanthesetwonationsoftheRepublic。"

Thisremark，whichisattributedtoSenatorBenjaminWadeofOhio，providesthekeytoAmericanpoliticsinthedecadefollowingtheCompromiseof1850。Totracethisdivisionofthepeopletoitsultimatesource，onewouldhavetogofarbackintocolonialtimes。Therewasaprocessofnaturalselectionatwork，intheintellectualandeconomicconditionsoftheeighteenthcentury，whichinevitablydrewtogethercertaintypesandgeneratedcertainforces。ThisprocessmanifesteditselfinoneforminHisMajesty"splantationsoftheNorth，andinanotherinthoseoftheSouth。Asearlyastheopeningofthenineteenthcentury，thesocialtendenciesofthetworegionswerealreadysofaralienatedthattheyinvolveddifferenceswhichwouldscarcelyadmitofreconciliation。Itisatruismtosaythatthesedifferencesgraduallywereconcentratedaroundfundamentallydifferentconceptionsoflabor——ofslavelaborintheSouth，offreelaborintheNorth。

Nothing，however，couldbemorefallaciousthanthenotionthatthisgrowingantagonismwascontrolledbyanydeliberatepurposeineitherpartofthecountry。ItwasapparentlynecessarythatthisRepublicinitsevolutionshouldproceedfromconfederationtonationalitythroughanintermediateandapparentlyreactionaryperiodofsectionalism。InthisstageofAmericanhistory，slaverywaswithoutdoubtoneoftheprimefactorsinvolved，butsectionalconsciousness，withallitsemotionalandpsychologicalimplications，wasthefundamentalimpulseofthesterneventswhichoccurredbetween1850and1865。

BythemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythemoreinfluentialSouthernershadcomegenerallytoregardtheirsectionofthecountryasadistinctsocialunit。Thenextstepwasinevitable。

TheSouthbegantoregarditselfasaseparatepoliticalunit。

ItisthedistinctionofCalhounthatheshowedhimselftowardtheendsufficientlyflexibletobecometheexponentofthisnewpoliticalimpulse。WithallhisearlierfireheencouragedtheSouthernerstowithdrawfromtheso-callednationalparties，WhigandDemocratic，toestablishinsteadasingleSouthernparty，andtoformulate，bymeansofpopularconventions，asingleconcertedpolicyfortheentireSouth。

Atthattimesuchapolicywasstillregarded，fromtheSouthernpointofview，asaradicalidea。In1851，abattlewasfoughtatthepollsbetweenthetwoSouthernideas——theoldonewhichupheldseparatestateindependence，andthenewonewhichvirtuallyacknowledgedSouthernnationality。Theissueatstakewastheacceptanceortherejectionofacompromisewhichcouldbringnopermanentsettlementoffundamentaldifferences。

NowherewasthebattlemoreinterestingthaninSouthCarolina，foritbroughtintoclearlightthatpowerfulSouthernleaderwhotenyearslaterwastobethemasterspiritofsecession——RobertBarnwellRhett。In1851hefoughthardtorevivetheolderideaofstateindependenceandtocarrySouthCarolinaasaseparatestateoutoftheUnion。AccordinglyitissignificantoftheprogressthattheconsolidationoftheSouthhadmadeatthisdatethatonthisissueRhettencounteredgeneralopposition。

Thisdifferenceofopinionastopolicywasnotinspired，assomehistorianshavetoohastilyconcluded，bynationalfeeling。

ScarcelyanyoftheleadersoftheoppositionconsideredtheFederalGovernmentsupremeovertheStateGovernment。

TheyopposedRhettbecausetheyfeltsecessiontobeatthatmomentbadpolicy。Theysawthat，ifSouthCarolinawentoutoftheUnionin1851，shewouldgoaloneandthesolidarityoftheSouthwouldbebroken。Theywerenotlackinginsectionalpatriotism，buttheirconceptionofthebestsolutionofthecomplexproblemdifferedfromthatadvocatedbyRhett。TheirpositionwassummedupbyLangdonCheveswhenhesaid，"TosecedenowistosecedefromtheSouthaswellasfromtheUnion。"OnthebasisofthisbelieftheydefeatedRhettandputoffsecessionfortenyears。

ThereisnoanalogoussingleeventinthehistoryoftheNorth，previoustothewar，whichrevealswithsimilarclearnessasectionalconsciousness。Onthesurfacethelifeofthepeopleseemed，indeed，tobelietheexistenceofanysuchfeeling。TheNortherncapitalistclassaimedsteadilyatbeingnon-sectional，anditmadefreeuseofthewordnational。Wemustnotforget，however，thatallsortsofpeopletalkedofnationalinstitutions，andthattheterm，untilwelookcloselyintothemindof，thepersonusingit，signifiesnothing。BecausetheNortherncapitalistrepudiatedtheideaofsectionalism，itdoesnotfollowthathesetupanyotherinitsplace。Insteadofaccomplishinganythingsopositive，heremainedforthemostpartanegativequantity。

LivingusuallysomewherebetweenMaineandOhio，hemadeithischiefpurposetoregulatetheoutflowofmanufacturesfromthatindustrialregionandtheinflowofagriculturalproduce。Themovementofthelattereastwardandnorthward，andtheformerwestwardandsouthward，representsroughlybutgraphicallythemovementofthebusinessofthattime。TheEasternerlivedinfearoflosingthemoneywhichwasowedhimintheSouth。AsthepoliticalandeconomicconditionsofthedaymadeunlikelyanyseriousclashofinterestbetweentheEastandtheWest，hehadlittlesolicitudeabouthisaccountsbeyondtheAlleghanies。ButagraduallydevelopinghostilitybetweenNorthandSouthwasaccompaniedbyaparallelanxietyonthepartofNortherncapitalforitsSoutherninvestmentsanddebts。Whenthewareventuallybecameinevitable，$200，000，000wereowedbySouthernerstoNortherners。Forthosedaysthiswasanindebtednessofnoinconsiderablemagnitude。TheNortherncapitalists，preoccupiedwiththeirdesiretosecurethisaccount，werenaturallyeagertorepudiatesectionalism，andtalkedaboutnationalinterestswithazealthathassometimesbeenmisinterpreted。Throughouttheentireperiodfrom1850to1865，capitalinAmericanpoliticsplayedforthemostpartanegativerole，andnotuntilafterthewardiditbecomeindependentofitsSoutherninterests。

FortherealNorthofthatdaywemustturntothoseNorthernerswhofeltsufficientuntothemselvesandwhosepoliticalconvictionswereunbiasedbypersonalinterestswhichwereinvolvedinotherpartsofthecountry。Wemustlistentothedistinctvoicesthatgaveutterancetotheirviews，andwemustobservethedefiniteschemesoftheirpoliticalleaders。

Directlywedothis，thefactstaresusinthefacethattheNorthhadbecomeademocracy。Therichmannolongerplayedtheroleofgrandee，forbythistimetherehadarisenthosetwogroupswhich，betweenthem，aretheruinofaristocracy——theclassofprosperouslaborersandthegroupofwell-to-dointellectuals。Ofthese，thelattergaveutterance，first，totheirfaithindemocracy，andthen，withalltheintensityofpartisanzeal，totheirsenseoftheNorthastheagentofdemocracy。TheprosperouslaborersapplaudedthisexpressionofanopinioninwhichtheythoroughlybelievedandatthesametimegavetheirwillingsupporttoalandpolicythatwastypicallyNorthern。

Americaneconomichistoryinthemiddlethirdofthecenturyisessentiallytherecordofastruggletogainpossessionofpublicland。TheopposingforcesweretheSouth，whichstrovetoperpetuatebythismeansasocialsystemthatwasfundamentallyaristocratic，andtheNorth，whichsoughtbythesamemeanstofosteritsidealofdemocracy。ThoughtheSouth，withtheaidofitseconomicvassal，theNortherncapitalistclass，wasforsometimeabletochecktheland-hungeroftheNortherndemocrats，itwasneverableentirelytosecurethecontrolwhichitdesired，butwasalwaysfacedwiththesteadyandcontinuedoppositionoftherealNorth。OnoneoccasioninCongress，theheartofthewholematterwasclearlyshown，forattheverymomentwhentheNorthernersofthedemocraticclasswerepressingoneoftheirfrequentschemesforfreeland，SouthernersandtheirsympatheticNorthernhenchmenwerefurtheringaschemethataimedatthepurchaseofCuba。FromtheimpatientsneerofaSouthernerthattheNorthernerssoughttogive"landtothelandless"andtheretortthattheSouthernersseemedequallyanxioustosupply"niggerstotheniggerless，"itcanbeseenthatAmericanhistoryissometimesbettersummedupbyangrypoliticiansthanbyhistorians。

Wemustbeonourguard，however，againstascribingtoeithersidetoopreciseaconsciousnessofitsownmotives。TheolddayswhentheAmericanCivilWarwasconceivedasaclear-cutissueareasawatchinthenightthathaspassed，andwenowrealizethathistoricalmovementsarealmostwithoutexceptiontheresultantsofmanymotives。Wehavecometorecognizethatmenhavealwaysmisapprehendedthemselves，contradictedthemselves，obeyedprimalimpulses，andthendeludedthemselveswithsophisticationsuponthespringsofaction。Inaword，unawareofwhattheyaredoing，menallowtheiraestheticanddramaticsensestoshapetheirconceptionsoftheirownlives。

That"greatimpersonalartist，"ofwhomMatthewArnoldhassomuchtosay，isatworkinusall，subtlymakingusintoillusions，firsttoourselvesandlatertothehistorian。Itisthebusinessofhistory，asofanalyticfiction，bothtofeelthepoweroftheseillusionsandtoworkthroughtheminimaginationtothedimbutpotentmotivesonwhichtheyrest。Wearepronetoforgetthatweactfromsubconsciousquiteasoftenasfromconsciousinfluences，frommotivesthatariseoutofthedimpartsofourbeing，fromthemidstofshadowsthatpsychologyhasonlyrecentlybeguntolift，wheresensessubtlerthantheobviousmakeuseoffear，intuition，prejudice，habit，andillusion，andtoooftenplaywithusasthewindwithblownleaves。

Trueasthisisofmanindividually，itisevenmorefundamentallytrueofmancollectively，ofparties，ofpeoples。

ItisastrikinglyaccuratedescriptionoftherelationofthetwoAmericannationsthatnowfoundthemselvesopposedwithintheRepublic。Neitherfullyunderstoodtheother。Eachhadasocialidealthatwasdeeperlaidthananytheoryofgovernmentorthananycommercialorhumanitarianinterest。Bothknewvaguelybutwithsureinstinctthattheirinterestsandidealswereirreconcilable。Eachfeltinitsheartthedeadlypassionofself-preservation。Itwasbecause，inbothNorthandSouth，menweresubtlyconsciousthatawholesocialsystemwastheissueatstake，andbecauseoneachsidetheybelievedintheirownidealswiththeirwholesouls，that，whenthetimecamefortheirtrialbyfire，theywenttotheirdeathssinging。

IntheSouththerestillobtainedtheancientidealofterritorialaristocracy。ThoselongtraditionsoftheWesternEuropeanpeopleswhichhadmadeofthegreatlandholderapettyprincelaybeneaththeplantationlifeoftheSouthernStates。

Thefeudalspirit，revivedinasofterworldandunderbrighterskies，gavetothosewhoparticipatedinitthesamegracesandsomewhatthesamecapacitieswhichitgavetotheknightlyclassinthedaysofRoland——courage，frankness，generosity，abilityinaffairs，asenseofresponsibility，theconsciousnessofcaste。

Themodeoflifewhichtheplantersenjoyedandwhichtheinferiorwhitesregardedasasocialparadisewasalifeofcompletedeliverancefromtoil，ofdisinterestedparticipationinlocalgovernment，ofabsolutepersonalfreedom——alifeinwhichthemechanicalactionoflawwaslessimportantthanthemorehumancompulsionofsocialopinion，andinwhichprivatedifferencesweresettledunderthecodeofhonor。

ThisSouthernlifewascarriedoninthemostappropriateenvironment。Onalandedestate，oftenlargerthanmanyofEurope"sbaronies，stoodthegreathouseoftheplanter，usuallyagracefulexampleofcolonialarchitecture，surroundedbystatelygardens。Thismansionwasthecenterofaboundlesshospitality；guestswerealwayscomingandgoing；thehostessandherdaughtersweretheverysymbolsofkindlinessandease。Tothinkofsuchhouseswastothinkofinnumerablejoyousdays；ofgentlemengallopingacrosscountryafterthehounds；ofcoacheslumberingalongavenuesofnobleoaks，bringinghandsomewomentovisitthemansion；ofgreatfeastings；ofnightsofmusicanddancing；aboveall，ofthegreatfestivalofChristmas，celebratedmuchashadbeenthecustomin"MerrieEngland"

centuriesbefore。

Belowthesurfaceofthisbrightworldlaytheenslavedblackrace。InthemindsofmanySoutherners——itwasalwaysasecretburdenfromwhichtheysawnomeansoffreeingthemselves。Toemancipatetheslaves，andtherebytocreateapopulationoffreeblacks，wasgenerallyconsidered，fromthewhitepointofview，animpossiblesolutionoftheproblem。TheSouthernersusuallybelievedthattheAfricancouldbetamedonlyinsmallgroupsandwhenconstantlysurroundedbywhiteinfluence，asinthecaseofhouseservants。Thoughafewgreatcapitalistshadtakenuptheideathatthedeliberateexploitationoftheblackswasthehighprerogativeofthewhites，thegeneralsentimentoftheSouthernpeoplewasmoretrulyexpressedbyToombswhenhesaid:"ThequestionisnotwhetherwecouldbemoreprosperousandhappywiththesethreeandahalfmillionslavesinAfrica，andtheirplacesfilledwithanequalnumberofhardy，intelligent，andenterprisingcitizensofthesuperiorrace；butitissimplywhether，whilewehavethemamongus，wewouldbemostprosperouswiththeminfreedomorinbondage。"

TheSouthernpeople，inthemajorityofinstances，hadnohatredoftheblacks。Inthemaintheyledtheirfree，spirited，andgraciouslife，convincedthatthemaintenanceofslaverywasbutmakingthebestofcircumstanceswhichwerebeyondtheircontrol。

ItwastheseSouthernpeoplewhoweretohearfromafarthehorribleindictmentofalltheirmotivesbytheAbolitionistsandwhoweretoreactinagrowingbitternessanddistrusttowardeverythingNorthern。

ButoftheseSouthernpeopletheaverageNorthernerknewnothing。

HeknewtheSouthonlyonitsleastattractivesideofprofessionalpolitics。Fortherewasagroupofpowerfulmagnates，richplantersor"slavebarons，"whoeasilymadetheirwayintoCongress，andwhoplayedintothehandsoftheNortherncapitalists，forapurposesimilartotheirs。Itwasthesemenwhoforcedtheissueuponslavery；theywarnedthecommonpeopleoftheNorthtomindtheirownbusiness；andfordoingsotheywerewarmlyapplaudedbytheNortherncapitalistclass。ItwasthereforeinoppositiontothewholeAmericanworldoforganizedcapitalthattheNorthernmassesdemandedtheuseof"theNorthernhammer"——asSumnerputit，inoneofhismostfuriousspeeches——intheiraimtodestroyasectionwhere，intuitively，theyfelttheirdemocraticidealcouldnotberealized。

Andwhatwasthatideal?Merelytoanswerdemocracyistododgethefundamentalquestion。TheNorthwastoocomplexinitssocialstructureandtoomultitudinousinitsintereststoconfineitselftoonetypeoflife。Itincludedallsortsandconditionsofmen——fromthemostgraciousofscholarswholivedinromanticeaseamonghisGermanandSpanishbooks，andwhoselovelyhouseinCambridgeisforeverassociatedwiththenoblepresenceofWashington，tothehardyfrontiersman，breakingthenewsoilofhisWesternclaim，whosewifeatsunsetshadedhertiredeyes，underahandroughwithlabor，asshestoodonthethresholdofherlogcabin，watchingforthereturnofhermanacrosstheweedyfieldswhichhehadnotyetfullysubdued。FarapartaswereLongfellowandthistoileroftheWest，theyyetfeltthemselvestobeoneinpurpose。

Theyweredemocrats，butnotafterthesimple，elementarymannerofthedemocratsattheopeningofthecentury。IntheNorth，therehadcometolifeapeculiarphaseofidealismthathadtoucheddemocracywithmysticismandhadaddedtoitavaguebutgenuineromance。ThisnewvisionofthedestinyofthecountryhadthepracticaleffectofmakingtheNorthernersidentifythemselvesintheirimaginationswithallmankindandincreatinginthemanenthusiasticdesire，notonlytogivetoeveryAmericanahomeofhisown，butalsotothrowopenthegatesofthenationandtosharethewealthofAmericawiththepoorofalltheworld。Inverytruth，itwastheirdominatingpassiontogive"landtothelandless。"HerewasthecluetomuchoftheirattitudetowardtheSouth。MostoftheseNortherndreamersgavelittleornothoughttoslaveryitself；buttheyfeltthatthesectionwhichmaintainedsuchasystemsocommittedtoaristocracythatanyrealfriendshipwithitwasimpossible。

WearethusforcedtoconceivetheAmericanRepublicintheyearsimmediatelyfollowingtheCompromiseof1850as，ineffect，adualnation，withoutacommonloyaltybetweenthetwoparts。

BeforelongthemostsignificantofthegreatNorthernersofthetimewastodescribethisimpossibleconditionbytheappropriatemetaphorofahousedividedagainstitself。Itwasnot，however，untileightyearsafterthedivisionofthecountryhadbeenacknowledgedin1850thatthesewordswereuttered。Inthoseeightyearsbothsectionsawoketotheseriousnessofthedifferencesthattheyhadadmitted。Bothperceivedthat，insteadofsolvingtheirproblemin1850，theyhadmerelydrawnsharplythelinesoffutureconflict。Ineverythoughtfulmindtherearosethesamealternativequestions:Istherenosolutionbutfightingitoutuntilonesidedestroystheother，orweendastwonationsconfessedlyindependent?Oristheresomeconceivablenewoutletforthisoppositionofenergyonthepartofthesections，somenewmodeofpermanentadjustment?

Itwasatthemomentwhenthinkingmenwereaskingthesequestionsthatoneofthenimblestofpoliticianstookthecenterofthestage。StephenA。Douglaswasfar-sightedenoughtounderstandtheland-hungerofthetime。Oneistemptedtoaddthathisearwastotheground。Thestatementwillnot，however，gounchallenged，forableapologistshavetheirgoodwordtosayforDouglas。Thoughinthemain，thetraditionalviewofhimastheprinceofpoliticaljugglersstillholdsitsown，letusadmitthathisbold，roughspirit，filledasitwaswithpoliticaldaring，wasnotwithoutitsstrangeveinofidealism。

Andthenletusrepeatthathisearwastotheground。Muchcarefulresearchhasindeedbeenexpendedinseekingtodeterminewhooriginatedthepolicywhich，about1853，Douglasdecidedtomakehisown。Therehasalsobeenmuchdisputeabouthismotives。Mostofus，however，seeinhiscourseofactionaninstanceofplayingthegameofpoliticswithanaudacitythatwasmagnificent。

HisconductmaywellhavebeentheresultofacombinationofmotiveswhichincludedadesiretoretainthefavoroftheNorthwest，awishtopavethewaytohiscandidacyforthePresidency，theintentiontoenlisttheaidoftheSouthaswellasthatofhisownlocality，andperhapsthehopethathewasperformingaserviceofrealvaluetohiscountry。Thatis，hesawthatthefavorofhisownNorthwestwouldbelavisheduponanymanwhoopeneduptosettlementtherichlandsbeyondIowaandMissouriwhichwerestillheldbytheIndians，andforwhichtheWesternerswereclamoring。Furthermore，theywantedarailroadthatwouldreachtothePacific。Therewere，however，localentanglementsandpoliticalcross-purposeswhichinvolvedtheinterestsofthefreeStateofIllinoisandthoseoftheslaveStateofMissouri。

Douglas"sgreatstrokewasaprogrammeforharmonizingalltheseconflictinginterestsandfordrawingtogethertheWestandtheSouth。Slaveholdersweretobegivenwhatatthatmomenttheywantedmost——anopportunitytoexpandintothatterritorytothenorthandwestofMissouriwhichhadbeenmadefreebytheCompromiseof1820，whilethefreeNorthwestwastohaveitsrailroadtothecoastandalsoitschancetoexpandintotheIndiancountry。Douglasthusbecamethechampionofabillwhichwouldorganizetwonewterritories，KansasandNebraska，butwhichwouldleavethesettlersineachtodecidewhetherslaveryorfreelaborshouldprevailwithintheirboundaries。ThisterritorialschemewasacceptedbyaCongressinwhichtheSouthernersandtheirNorthernalliesheldcontrol，andwhatisknownastheKansas-NebraskaBillwassignedbyPresidentPierceonMay30，1854。*

*TheoriginoftheKansas-NebraskaBillhasbeenamuchdiscussedsubjectamonghistoriansinrecentyears。TheolderviewthatDouglaswassimplyplayingintothehandsofthe"slavepower"bysacrificingKansas，isnolongertenable。ThispointhasbeenelaboratedbyAllenJohnsoninhisstudyofDouglas("StephenA。

Douglas:aStudyinAmericanPolitics")。Inhis"RepealoftheMissouriCompromise"，P。O。Raycontendsthatthelegislationof1854originatedinafactionalcontroversyinMissouri，andthatDouglasmerelyservedtheinterestsoftheproslaverygroupledbySenatorDavidR。AtchinsonofMissouri。Stillanotherpointofviewisthatpresentedinthe"GenesisoftheKansas-NebraskaAct，"byF。H。Hodder，whowouldexplainnotonlythedivisionoftheNebraskaTerritoryintoKansasandNebraska，buttheobjectoftheentirebillbytheinsistenteffortsofpromotersofthePacificrailroadschemetosecurearightofwaythroughNebraska。ThisprojectinvolvedtheorganizationofaterritorialgovernmentandtherepealoftheMissouriCompromise。

Douglaswasdeeplyinterestedinthewesternrailroadinterestsandcarriedthroughthenecessarylegislation。

CHAPTERII。THEPARTYOFPOLITICALEVASION

InordertounderstandDouglasonemustunderstandtheDemocraticpartyof1854inwhichDouglaswasaconspicuousleader。TheDemocratsboastedthattheyweretheonlyreallynationalpartyandcontendedthattheirrivals，theWhigsandtheKnow-Nothings，weremerelytherepresentativesoflocalitiesorclasses。

SectionalismwasthefavoritechargewhichtheDemocratsbroughtagainsttheirenemies；andyetitwasupontheseveryDemocratsthattheslaveholdershadhithertorelied，anditwasuponcertainmembersofthispartythatthelabel，"NorthernmenwithSouthernprinciples，"hadbeenbestowed。

Thelabelwasnot，however，altogetherfair，forthemotivesoftheDemocratsweredeeplyrootedintheirownpeculiartemperament。Inthelastanalysis，whathadheldtheirorganizationtogether，andwhathadenabledthemtodominatepoliticsfornearlythespanofageneration，wastheirfaithinaprinciplethatthenappealedpowerfully，andthatstillappeals，tomuchintheAmericancharacter。Thiswastheprincipleofnegativeactiononthepartofthegovernment——theoldideathatthegovernmentshoulddoaslittleaspossibleandshouldconfineitselfpracticallytothedutiesofthepoliceman。

ThisprinciplehasseemedalwaystoexpresstotheaveragemindthattraditionalindividualismwhichisaninheritanceoftheAnglo-Saxonrace。InAmerica，inthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury，itreenforcedthattraditionoflocalindependencewhichwasstrongthroughouttheWestanddoublystrongintheSouth。

Then，too，theDemocraticpartystillspokethelanguageofthetheoreticalDemocracyinheritedfromJefferson。AndAmericanshavealwaysbeentheslavesofphrases!

Furthermore，thecloseallianceoftheNorthernpartymachinewiththeSouthmadeit，generally，anobjectofcareforallthoseNorthernintereststhatdependedontheSouthernmarket。

AstotheSoutherners，theirrelationwiththispartyhastwodistinctchapters。ThefirstembracedthetwentyyearsprecedingtheCompromiseof1850，andmaybethoughtofasmergingintothesecondduringthreeorfouryearsfollowingthegreatequivocation。Inthatperiod，whiletheantislaverycrusadewastakingform，theaimofSouthernpoliticianswasmainlynegative。

"Letusalone，"wastheirchiefdemand。Thoughaggressiveintheirpolicy，theyweretoofar-sightedtodemandoftheNorthanypositivecourseinfavorofslavery。TheriseofanewtypeofSouthernpolitician，however，createdadifferentsituationandbeganasecondchapterintherelationbetweentheSouthandtheDemocraticpartymachineintheNorth。Butofthathereafter。

Until1854，itwastheobviouspartofwisdomforSouthernerstocooperateasfaraspossiblewiththatpartywhosecardinalideawasthatthegovernmentshouldcomeasnearasconceivabletoasystemofnon-interference；thatitshouldnotinterferewithbusiness，andthereforeopposeatariff；thatitshouldnotinterferewithlocalgovernment，andthereforeapplaudstatesrights；thatitshouldnotinterferewithslavery，andthereforefrownuponmilitantabolition。Itspolicywas，toadoptafamiliarphrase，oneofmasterlyinactivity。Indeeditmaywellbecalledthepartyofpoliticalevasion。Itwasahuge，looseconfederacyofdifferingpoliticalgroups，embracingpaupersandmillionaires，moderateanti-slaverymenandslavebarons，allofwhomwereheldtogetherbytheunreliablebondofanagreementnottotreadoneachother"stoes。

OfthispartyDouglaswasthetypicalrepresentative，bothinstrengthandweakness。Hehadallitspliability，itsgoodhumor，itsbroadandeasywaywiththings，itspassionforplayingpolitics。Nevertheless，incallinguponthebelieversinpoliticalevasiontoconsentforthisoncetoreversetheirprincipleandtoendorseapositiveaction，hehadtakenagreatrisk。Wouldtheirsportingsenseofpoliticsasagiganticgamecarryhimthroughsuccessfully?Heknewthattherewasahardfightbeforehim，butwiththecourageofagreatpoliticalstrategist，andproudlyconfidentinhisholduponthemainbodyofhisparty，hepreparedforboththeattacksandthedefectionsthatwereinevitable。

Defections，indeed，beganatonce。Evenbeforethebillhadbeenpassed，the"AppealoftheIndependentDemocrats"wasprintedinaNewYorkpaper，withthesignaturesofmembersofCongressrepresentingboththeextremeanti-slaverywingoftheDemocratsandtheorganizedFree-Soilparty。ThemostfamousofthesenameswerethoseofChaseandSumner，bothofwhomhadbeensenttotheSenatebyacoalitionofFree-SoilersandDemocrats。Withthemwastheveteranabolitionist，GiddingsofOhio。The"Appeal"denouncedDouglasasan"unscrupulouspolitician"andsoundedboththewarcriesoftheNorthernmassesbyaccusinghimofbeingengagedin"anatrociousplottoexcludefromavastunoccupiedregionimmigrantsfromtheOldWorldandfreelaborersfromourownStates。"

Theeventsofthespringandsummerof1854mayallbegroupedundertwoheads——theformationofanantiNebraskaparty，andthequickrushofsectionalpatriotismtoseizetheterritorylaidopenbytheKansas-NebraskaAct。TheinstantaneousrefusaloftheNorthernerstoconfinetheirsettlementtoNebraska，andtheirpromptinvasionofKansas；thesimilarinvasionfromtheSouth；thesupportofbothmovementsbysocietiesorganizedforthatpurpose；thewarinKansasallthedetailsofthisthrillingstoryhavebeentoldelsewhere。*Thepoliticalstoryaloneconcernsushere。

*SeeJesseMacy，"TheAnti-SlaveryCrusade"。(In"TheChroniclesofAmerica"。)

Whenthefightbegantherewerefourpartiesinthefield:theDemocrats，theWhigs，theFree-Soilers，andtheKnow-Nothings。

TheFree-Soilparty，hithertoasmallorganization，hadsoughttomakeslaverythemainissueinpolitics。Itswatchwordwas"Freesoil，freespeech，freelabor，andfreemen。"ItisneedlesstoaddthatitwasinstantaneousinitsoppositiontotheKansas-NebraskaAct。

TheWhigsatthemomentenjoyedthegreatestprestige，owingtotheassociationwiththemofsuchdistinguishedleadersasWebsterandClay。In1854，however，asapartytheyweredying，andtheveryconditionthathadmadesuccesspossiblefortheDemocratsmadeitimpossiblefortheWhigs，becausethelatterstoodforpositiveideas，andaimedtobenationalinrealityandnotintheevasiveDemocraticsenseoftheterm。For，asamatteroffact，onanalysisallthegreaterissuesofthedayprovedtobesectional。TheWhigswouldnot，liketheDemocrats，adoptanegativeattitudetowardtheseissues，norwouldtheyconsenttobecomemerelysectional。Yetatthemomentnegationandsectionalismweretheonlyalternatives，andbetweenthesemillstonestheWhigorganizationwasdestinedtobegroundtobitsandtodisappearafterthenextPresidentialelection。

Evenpreviousto1854，numbersofWhigshadsoughtadesperateoutletfortheirdesiretobepositiveinpoliticsandhadcreatedanewpartywhichduringafewyearswastoseemarealityandthenvanishtogetherwithitsparent。Theonechanceforapartywhichhadpositiveideasandwhichwishednottobesectionalwasthedefiniteabandonmentofexistingissuesandthediscoveryofsomenewissuenotconnectedwithsectionalfeeling。

Now，ithappenedthatavarietyofcauses，socialandreligious，hadbroughtaboutbadbloodbetweennativeandforeigner，insomeofthegreatcities，andupontheissueinvolvedinthisconditionthefailingspiritoftheWhigsfastened。Asecretsocietywhichhadbeenformedtoopposethenaturalizationofforeignersquicklybecamearecognizedpoliticalparty。AsthemembersoftheSocietyansweredallquestionswith"Idonotknow，"theycametobecalled"Know-Nothings，"thoughtheycalledthemselves"Americans。"InthosestateswheretheWhigshadbeenstrongest——Massachusetts，NewYork，andPennsylvania——thislastattempttoapplytheirformertemper，thoughnottheirprinciples，hadforamomentsomesuccess；butitcouldnotescapethefiercedivisionwhichwasforcedonthecountrybyDouglas。Asaresult，itrapidlysplitintofactions，oneofwhichmergedwiththeenemiesofDouglas，whiletheotherwaslostamonghissupporters。

WhatwouldthegreatdyingWhigpartyleavebehindit?Thiswasthereallymomentousquestionin1854。Briefly，thispartybequeathedthetemperofpoliticalpositivismandatthesametimethedreadofsectionalism。TheinnercluetoAmericanpoliticsduringthenextfewyearsis，tomanyminds，tobefoundlargelyintheunionofthisoldWhigtemperwithanew-bornsectionalpatriotism，and，tootherminds，inthegradualandreluctantpassingoftheWhigoppositiontoasectionalparty。

ButthoughthistransformationofthewrecksofWhiggismbeganimmediately，andwhiletheKansas-NebraskaBillwasstillbeinghotlydebatedinCongress，itwasnotuntil1860thatitwascompleted。

InthemeantimevariousincidentshadshownthatthesectionalpatriotismoftheNorth，thefuryoftheabolitionists，andthepositivetemperinpolitics，werealldrawingclosertogether。

Eachofthesetendenciescanbebrieflyillustrated。Forexample，therushtoKansashadbegun，andtheMassachusettsEmigrantAidSocietywaspreparingtoassistsettlerswhoweregoingwest。InMay，thereoccurredatBostononeofthemostconspicuousattemptstorescueafugitiveslave，inwhichamobledbyThomasWentworthHigginsonattackedtheguardsofAnthonyBurns，acapturedfugitive，killedoneofthem，butfailedtogettheslave，whowascarriedtoarevenuecutterbetweenlinesofsoldiersandreturnedtoslavery。AmongnumerousdetailsofthehourtheburningofDouglasineffigyisperhapsworthpassingnotice。Indulytheanti-NebraskamenofMichiganheldaconvention，atwhichtheyorganizedasapoliticalpartyandnominatedastateticket。Oftheirnominees，twohadhithertorankedthemselvesasFree-Soilers，threeasanti-slaveryDemocrats，andfiveasWhigs。Forthenameoftheirpartytheychose"Republican，"andasthefoundationoftheirplatformtheresolution"That，postponingandsuspendingalldifferenceswithregardtopoliticaleconomyoradministrativepolicy，"theywould"actcordiallyandfaithfullyinunison，"opposingtheextensionofslavery，andwould"cooperateandbeknownas"Republicans"

untilthecontestbeterminated。"

Thehistoryofthenexttwoyearsis，initsmainoutlines，thestoryofthewarinKansasandofthespreadofthisnewpartythroughouttheNorth。Itwasonlybydegrees，however，thattheRepublicansabsorbedthevariousgroupsofanti-Nebraskamen。

WhathappenedatthistimeinIllinoismaybetakenastypical，anditisparticularlynoteworthyasrevealingthefirstrealappearanceofAbrahamLincolninAmericanhistory。

Thoughin1854hewasnotyetanationalfigure，Lincolnwaslocallyaccreditedwithkeenpoliticalinsight，andwas，regardedinIllinoisasastronglawyer。Thestoryistoldofhimthat，whilehewasattendingcourtonthecircuit，heheardthenewsoftheKansas-NebraskaActinatavernandsatupmostofthenighttalkingaboutit。Nextmorningheusedaphrasedestinedtobecomefamous。"Itellyou，"saidhetoafellowlawyer，"thisnationcannotexisthalfslaveandhalffree。"

Lincoln，however，wasnotoneofthefirsttojointheRepublicans。InIllinois，in1854，LincolnresignedhisseatinthelegislaturetobecometheWhigcandidateforUnitedStatessenator，tosucceedtheDemocraticcolleagueofDouglas。Buttherewaslittlechanceofhiselection，fortherealcontestwasbetweenthetwowingsoftheDemocrats，theNebraskamenandtheanti-Nebraskamen，andLincolnwithdrewinfavorofthecandidateofthelatter，whowaselected。

Duringthefollowingyear，fromthemidstofhisbusylawpractice，LincolnwatchedtheWhigpartygotopieces。HesawagreatpartofitsvotelodgetemporarilyamongtheKnow-Nothings，butbeforetheendoftheyeareventheybegantolosetheirprominence。Intheautumn，fromtheobscurityofhisprovinciallife，hesaw，faroff，Seward，themostastutepoliticianoftheday，jointhenewmovement。InNewYork，theRepublicanstateconventionandtheWhigstateconventionmergedintoone，andSewardpronouncedabaptismalorationupontheRepublicanpartyofNewYork。

IntheHouseofRepresentativeswhichmetinDecember，1855，theanti-Nebraskamenweredividedamongthemselves，andtheKnow-Nothingsheldthebalanceofpower。Nocandidateforthespeakership，however，wasabletocommandamajority，andfinally，afterithadbeenagreedthatapluralitywouldbesufficient，thecontestclosed，ontheonehundredandthirty-thirdballot，withtheelectionofaRepublican，N。P。

Banks。MeanwhileintheSouth，theWhigswererapidlyleavingtheparty，pausingamomentwiththeKnow-Nothings，onlytofindthattheirinevitableresting-place，understressofsectionalfeeling，waswiththeDemocrats。

OnWashington"sbirthday，1856，theKnow-NothingnationalconventionmetatPhiladelphia。Itpromptlysplituponthesubjectofslavery，andaportionofitsmembershipsentwordofferingsupporttoanotherconventionwhichwassittingatPittsburgh，andwhichhadbeencalledtoformanationalorganizationfortheRepublicanparty。AthirdassemblyheldonthissamedaywascomposedofthenewspapereditorsofIllinois，andmaybelookeduponastheorganizationoftheRepublicanpartyinthatstate。Atthedinnerfollowingthisinformalconvention，Lincoln，whowasoneofthespeakers，wastoastedas"thenextUnitedStatesSenator。"

Somefourmonthsafterward，inPhiladelphia，theRepublicansheldtheirfirstnationalconvention。Onlyafewyearspreviousitsmembershadcalledthemselvesbyvariousnames——Democrats，Free-Soilers，Know-Nothings，Whigs。Theoldhostilitiesofthesedifferentgroupshadnotyetdiedout。Consequently，thoughSewardwasfarandawaythemosteminentmemberofthenewparty，hewasnotnominatedforPresident。ThatdangeroushonorwasbestoweduponadashingsoldierandexploreroftheRockyMountainsandtheFarWest，JohnC。Fremont。*

*ForanaccountofFremont，seeStewartEdwardWhite，"TheForty-Niners"(in"TheChroniclesofAmerica")，ChapterII。