第12章

Whereforeamongmen，solongastheyareconsideredaslivingundertheswayofnature，hewhodoesnotyetknowreason，orwhohasnotyetacquiredthehabitofvirtue，actssolelyaccordingtothelawsofhisdesirewithassovereignarightashewhoordershislifeentirelybythelawsofreason。

(16:12)Thatis，asthewisemanhassovereignrighttodoallthatreasondictates，ortoliveaccordingtothelawsofreason，soalsotheignorantandfoolishmanhassovereignrighttodoallthatdesiredictates，ortoliveaccordingtothelawsofdesire。(13)ThisisidenticalwiththeteachingofPaul，whoacknowledgesthatprevioustothelaw-thatis，solongasmenareconsideredofaslivingundertheswayofnature，thereisnosin。

(16:14)Thenaturalrightoftheindividualmanisthusdetermined，notbysoundreason，butbydesireandpower。(15)Allarenotnaturallyconditionedsoastoactaccordingtothelawsandrulesofreason；nay，onthecontrary，allmenarebornignorant，andbeforetheycanlearntherightwayoflifeandacquirethehabitofvirtue，thegreaterpartoftheirlife，eveniftheyhavebeenwellbroughtup，haspassedaway。(16)

Nevertheless，theyareinthemeanwhileboundtoliveandpreservethemselvesasfarastheycanbytheunaidedimpulsesofdesire。(17)Naturehasgiventhemnootherguide，andhasdeniedthemthepresentpoweroflivingaccordingtosoundreason；sothattheyarenomoreboundtolivebythedictatesofanenlightenedmind，thanacatisboundtolivebythelawsofthenatureofalion。

(16:18)Whatsoever，therefore，anindividual(consideredasundertheswayofnature)thinksusefulforhimself，whetherledbysoundreasonorimpelledbythepassions，thathehasasovereignrighttoseekandtotakeforhimselfashebestcan，whetherbyforce，cunning，entreaty，oranyothermeans；consequentlyhemayregardasanenemyanyonewhohinderstheaccomplishmentofhispurpose。

(16:19)Itfollowsfromwhatwehavesaidthattherightandordinanceofnature，underwhichallmenareborn，andunderwhichtheymostlylive，onlyprohibitssuchthingsasnoonedesires，andnoonecanattain:itdoesnotforbidstrife，norhatred，noranger，nordeceit，nor，indeed，anyofthemeanssuggestedbydesire。

(16:20)Thisweneednotwonderat，fornatureisnotboundedbythelawsofhumanreason，whichaimsonlyatman"struebenefitandpreservation；herlimitsareinfinitelywider，andhavereferencetotheeternalorderofnature，whereinmanisbutaspeck；itisbythenecessityofthisalonethatallindividualsareconditionedforlivingandactinginaparticularway。(21)Ifanything，therefore，innatureseemstousridiculous，absurd，orevil，itisbecauseweonlyknowinpart，andarealmostentirelyignorantoftheorderandinterdependenceofnatureasawhole，andalsobecausewewanteverythingtobearrangedaccordingtothedictatesofourhumanreason；inrealitythatwhichreasonconsidersevil，isnotevilinrespecttotheorderandlawsofnatureasawhole，butonlyinrespecttothelawsofourreason。

(16:22)Nevertheless，noonecandoubtthatitismuchbetterforustoliveaccordingtothelawsandassureddictatesofreason，for，aswesaid，theyhavemen"struegoodfortheirobject。(23)Moreover，everyonewishestoliveasfaraspossiblesecurelybeyondthereachoffear，andthiswouldbequiteimpossiblesolongaseveryonedideverythingheliked，andreason"sclaimwasloweredtoaparwiththoseofhatredandanger；thereisnoonewhoisnotillateaseinthemidstofenmity，hatred，anger，anddeceit，andwhodoesnotseektoavoidthemasmuchashecan。[16:3](24)Whenwereflectthatmenwithoutmutualhelp，ortheaidofreason，mustneedslivemostmiserably，asweclearlyprovedinChap。V。，weshallplainlyseethatmenmustnecessarilycometoanagreementtolivetogetherassecurelyandwellaspossibleiftheyaretoenjoyasawholetherightswhichnaturallybelongtothemasindividuals，andtheirlifeshouldbenomoreconditionedbytheforceanddesireofindividuals，butbythepowerandwillofthewholebody。(25)Thisendtheywillbeunabletoattainifdesirebetheironlyguide(forbythelawsofdesireeachmanisdrawninadifferentdirection)；theymust，therefore，mostfirmlydecreeandestablishthattheywillbeguidedineverythingbyreason(whichnobodywilldareopenlytorepudiatelestheshouldbetakenforamadman)，andwillrestrainanydesirewhichisinjurioustoaman"sfellows，thattheywilldotoallastheywouldbedoneby，andthattheywilldefendtheirneighbour"srightsastheirown。

(16:26)Howsuchacompactasthisshouldbeenteredinto，howratifiedandestablished，wewillnowinquire。

(27)Nowitisauniversallawofhumannaturethatnooneeverneglectsanythingwhichhejudgestobegood，exceptwiththehopeofgainingagreatergood，orfromthefearofagreaterevil；nordoesanyoneendureanevilexceptforthesakeofavoidingagreaterevil，orgainingagreatergood。(28)Thatis，everyonewill，oftwogoods，choosethatwhichhethinksthegreatest；and，oftwoevils，thatwhichhethinkstheleast。(29)Isayadvisedlythatwhichhethinksthegreatestortheleast，foritdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthathejudgesright。(30)Thislawissodeeplyimplantedinthehumanmindthatitoughttobecountedamongeternaltruthsandaxioms。

(16:31)Asanecessaryconsequenceoftheprinciplejustenunciated，noonecanhonestlypromisetoforegotherightwhichhehasoverallthings[Endnote26]，andingeneralnoonewillabidebyhispromises，unlessunderthefearofagreaterevil，orthehopeofagreatergood。(32)Anexamplewillmakethematterclearer。(33)SupposethatarobberforcesmetopromisethatIwillgivehimmygoodsathiswillandpleasure。(34)Itisplain(inasmuchasmynaturalrightis，asIhaveshown，co-extensivewithmypower)thatifIcanfreemyselffromthisrobberbystratagem，byassentingtohisdemands，Ihavethenaturalrighttodoso，andtopretendtoaccepthisconditions。(35)Oragain，supposeIhavegenuinelypromisedsomeonethatforthespaceoftwentydaysIwillnottastefoodoranynourishment；andsupposeIafterwardsfindthatwasfoolish，andcannotbekeptwithoutverygreatinjurytomyself；asIamboundbynaturallawandrighttochoosetheleastoftwoevils，Ihavecompleterighttobreakmycompact，andactasifmypromisehadneverbeenuttered。(36)IsaythatI

shouldhaveperfectnaturalrighttodoso，whetherIwasactuatedbytrueandevidentreason，orwhetherIwasactuatedbymereopinioninthinkingI

hadpromisedrashly；whethermyreasonsweretrueorfalse，Ishouldbeinfearofagreaterevil，which，bytheordinanceofnature，Ishouldstrivetoavoidbyeverymeansinmypower。

(16:37)Wemay，therefore，concludethatacompactisonlymadevalidbyitsutility，withoutwhichitbecomesnullandvoid。(38)Itis，therefore，foolishtoaskamantokeephisfaithwithusforever，unlesswealsoendeavourthattheviolationofthecompactweenterintoshallinvolvefortheviolatormoreharmthangood。(39)Thisconsiderationshouldhaveverygreatweightinformingastate。(40)However，ifallmencouldbeeasilyledbyreasonalone，andcouldrecognizewhatisbestandmostusefulforastate，therewouldbenoonewhowouldnotforsweardeceit，foreveryonewouldkeepmostreligiouslytotheircompactintheirdesireforthechiefgood，namely，theshieldandbucklerofthecommonwealth。(41)However，itisfarfrombeingthecasethatallmencanalwaysbeeasilyledbyreasonalone；everyoneisdrawnawaybyhispleasure，whileavarice，ambition，envy，hatred，andthelikesoengrossthemindthat，reasonhasnoplacetherein。(42)Hence，thoughmenmake-promiseswithalltheappearancesofgoodfaith，andagreethattheywillkeeptotheirengagement，noonecanabsolutelyrelyonanotherman"spromiseunlessthereissomethingbehindit。(43)Everyonehasbynaturearighttoactdeceitfully。andtobreakhiscompacts，unlessheberestrainedbythehopeofsomegreatergood，orthefearofsomegreaterevil。

(16:44)However，aswehaveshownthatthenaturalrightoftheindividualisonlylimitedbyhispower，itisclearthatbytransferring，eitherwillinglyorundercompulsion，thispowerintothehandsofanother，heinsodoingnecessarilycedesalsoapartofhisright；andfurther，thattheSovereignrightoverallmenbelongstohimwhohassovereignpower，wherewithhecancompelmenbyforce，orrestrainthembythreatsoftheuniversallyfearedpunishmentofdeath；suchsovereignrighthewillretainonlysolongashecanmaintainhispowerofenforcinghiswill；

otherwisehewilltotteronhisthrone，andnoonewhoisstrongerthanhewillbeboundunwillinglytoobeyhim。

(16:45)Inthismannerasocietycanbeformedwithoutanyviolationofnaturalright，andthecovenantcanalwaysbestrictlykept-thatis，ifeachindividualhandsoverthewholeofhispowertothebodypolitic，thelatterwillthenpossesssovereignnaturalrightoverallthings；thatis，itwillhavesoleandunquestioneddominion，andeveryonewillbeboundtoobey，underpainoftheseverestpunishment。(46)AbodypoliticofthiskindiscalledaDemocracy，whichmaybedefinedasasocietywhichwieldsallitspowerasawhole。(47)Thesovereignpowerisnotrestrainedbyanylaws，buteveryoneisboundtoobeyitinallthings；suchisthestateofthingsimpliedwhenmeneithertacitlyorexpresslyhandedovertoitalltheirpowerofself-defence，orinotherwords，alltheirright。(48)Foriftheyhadwishedtoretainanyrightforthemselves，theyoughttohavetakenprecautionsforitsdefenceandpreservation；astheyhavenotdoneso，andindeedcouldnothavedonesowithoutdividingandconsequentlyruiningthestate，theyplacedthemselvesabsolutelyatthemercyofthesovereignpower；and，therefore，havingacted(aswehaveshown)asreasonandnecessitydemanded，theyareobligedtofulfilthecommandsofthesovereignpower，howeverabsurdthesemaybe，elsetheywillbepublicenemies，andwillactagainstreason，whichurgesthepreservationofthestateasaprimaryduty。(49)Forreasonbidsuschoosetheleastoftwoevils。

(16:50)Furthermore，thisdangerofsubmittingabsolutelytothedominionandwillofanother，isonewhichmaybeincurredwithalightheart:forwehaveshownthatsovereignsonlypossessthisrightofimposingtheirwill，solongastheyhavethefullpowertoenforceit:ifsuchpowerbelosttheirrighttocommandislostalso，orlapsestothosewhohaveassumeditandcankeepit。(51)Thusitisveryrareforsovereignstoimposethoroughlyirrationalcommands，fortheyareboundtoconsulttheirowninterests，andretaintheirpowerbyconsultingthepublicgoodandactingaccordingtothedictatesofreason，asSenecasays，"violentaimperianemocontinuitdiu。"(52)Noonecanlongretainatyrant"ssway。

(16:53)Inademocracy，irrationalcommandsarestilllesstobefeared:foritisalmostimpossiblethatthemajorityofapeople，especiallyifitbealargeone，shouldagreeinanirrationaldesign:and，moreover，thebasisandaimofademocracyistoavoidthedesiresasirrational，andtobringmenasfaraspossibleunderthecontrolofreason，sothattheymayliveinpeaceandharmony:ifthisbasisberemovedthewholefabricfallstoruin。

(16:54)Suchbeingtheendsinviewforthesovereignpower，thedutyofsubjectsis，asIhavesaid，toobeyitscommands，andtorecognizenorightsavethatwhichitsanctions。

[16:4](55)Itwill，perhaps，bethoughtthatweareturningsubjectsintoslaves:forslavesobeycommandsandfreemenliveastheylike；butthisideaisbasedonamisconception，forthetrueslaveishewhoisledawaybyhispleasuresandcanneitherseewhatisgoodforhimnoractaccordingly:healoneisfreewholiveswithfreeconsentundertheentireguidanceofreason。

(16:56)Actioninobediencetoordersdoestakeawayfreedominacertainsense，butitdoesnot，therefore，makeamanaslave，alldependsontheobjectoftheaction。(57)Iftheobjectoftheactionbethegoodofthestate，andnotthegoodoftheagent，thelatterisaslaveanddoeshimselfnogood:butinastateorkingdomwherethewealofthewholepeople，andnotthatoftheruler，isthesupremelaw，obediencetothesovereignpowerdoesnotmakeamanaslave，ofnousetohimself，butasubject。(58)Therefore，thatstateisthefreestwhoselawsarefoundedonsoundreason，sothateverymemberofitmay，ifhewill，befree[Endnote27]；thatis，livewithfullconsentundertheentireguidanceofreason。

(16:59)Children，thoughtheyareboundtoobeyallthecommandsoftheirparents，areyetnotslaves:forthecommandsofparentslookgenerallytothechildren"sbenefit。

(60)Wemust，therefore，acknowledgeagreatdifferencebetweenaslave，ason，andasubject；theirpositionsmaybethusdefined。(61)Aslaveisonewhoisboundtoobeyhismaster"sorders，thoughtheyaregivensolelyinthemaster"sinterest:asonisonewhoobeyshisfather"sorders，giveninhisowninterest；asubjectobeystheordersofthesovereignpower，givenforthecommoninterest，whereinheisincluded。

(16:62)IthinkIhavenowshownsufficientlyclearlythebasisofademocracy:Ihaveespeciallydesiredtodoso，forIbelieveittobeofallformsofgovernmentthemostnatural，andthemostconsonantwithindividualliberty。(63)Initnoonetransfershisnaturalrightsoabsolutelythathehasnofurthervoiceinaffairs，heonlyhandsitovertothemajorityofasociety，whereofheisaunit。Thusallmenremainastheywereinthestateofnature，equals。

(16:64)ThisistheonlyformofgovernmentwhichIhavetreatedofatlength，foritistheonemostakintomypurposeofshowingthebenefitsoffreedominastate。

(65)Imaypassoverthefundamentalprinciplesofotherformsofgovernment，forwemaygatherfromwhathasbeensaidwhencetheirrightariseswithoutgoingintoitsorigin。(66)Thepossessorofsovereignpower，whetherhebeone，ormany，orthewholebodypolitic，hasthesovereignrightofimposinganycommandshepleases:andhewhohaseithervoluntarily，orundercompulsion，transferredtherighttodefendhimtoanother，has，insodoing，renouncedhisnaturalrightandisthereforeboundtoobey，inallthings，thecommandsofthesovereignpower；andwillbeboundsotodosolongastheking，ornobles，orthepeoplepreservethesovereignpowerwhichformedthebasisoftheoriginaltransfer。(67)Ineedaddnomore。

[16:5](68)Thebasesandrightsofdominionbeingthusdisplayed，weshallreadilybeabletodefineprivatecivilright，wrong，justice，andinjustice，withtheirrelationstothestate；andalsotodeterminewhatconstitutesanally，oranenemy，orthecrimeoftreason。

(16:69)Byprivatecivilrightwecanonlymeanthelibertyeverymanpossessestopreservehisexistence，alibertylimitedbytheedictsofthesovereignpower，andpreservedonlybyitsauthority:forwhenamanhastransferredtoanotherhisrightoflivingashelikes，whichwasonlylimitedbyhispower，thatis，hastransferredhislibertyandpowerofself-defence，heisboundtoliveasthatotherdictates，andtotrusttohimentirelyforhisdefence。(70)Wrongtakesplacewhenacitizen，orsubject，isforcedbyanothertoundergosomelossorpainincontradictiontotheauthorityofthelaw，ortheedictofthesovereignpower。

(16:71)Wrongisconceivableonlyinanorganizedcommunity:norcaniteveraccruetosubjectsfromanyactofthesovereign，whohastherighttodowhathelikes。(72)Itcanonlyarise，therefore，betweenprivatepersons，whoareboundbylawandrightnottoinjureoneanother。(73)Justiceconsistsinthehabitualrenderingtoeverymanhislawfuldue:injusticeconsistsindeprivingaman，underthepretenceoflegality，ofwhatthelaws，rightlyinterpreted，wouldallowhim。(74)Theselastarealsocalledequityandiniquity，becausethosewhoadministerthelawsareboundtoshownorespectofpersons，buttoaccountallmenequal，andtodefendeveryman"srightequally，neitherenvyingtherichnordespisingthepoor。

[16:6](75)Themenoftwostatesbecomeallies，whenforthesakeofavoidingwar，orforsomeotheradvantage，theycovenanttodoeachothernohurt，butonthecontrary，toassisteachotherifnecessityarises，eachretaininghisindependence。(76)Suchacovenantisvalidsolongasitsbasisofdangeroradvantageisinforce:nooneentersintoanengagement，orisboundtostandbyhiscompactsunlesstherebeahopeofsomeaccruinggood，orthefearofsomeevil:ifthisbasisberemovedthecompacttherebybecomesvoid:thishasbeenabundantlyshownbyexperience。(77)Foralthoughdifferentstatesmaketreatiesnottoharmoneanother，theyalwaystakeeverypossibleprecautionagainstsuchtreatiesbeingbrokenbythestrongerparty，anddonotrelyonthecompact，unlessthereisasufficientlyobviousobjectandadvantagetobothpartiesinobservingit。

(78)Otherwisetheywouldfearabreachoffaith，norwouldtherebeanywrongdonethereby:forwhoinhispropersenses，andawareoftherightofthesovereignpower，wouldtrustinthepromisesofonewhohasthewillandthepowertodowhathelikes，andwhoaimssolelyatthesafetyandadvantageofhisdominion?(79)Moreover，ifweconsultloyaltyandreligion，weshallseethatnooneinpossessionofpoweroughttoabidebyhispromisestotheinjuryofhisdominion；forhecannotkeepsuchpromiseswithoutbreakingtheengagementhemadewithhissubjects，bywhichbothheandtheyaremostsolemnlybound。(80)Anenemyisonewholivesapartfromthestate，anddoesnotrecognizeitsauthorityeitherasasubjectorasanally。Itisnothatredwhichmakesamananenemy，buttherightsofthestate。(81)Therightsofthestatearethesameinregardtohimwhodoesnotrecognizebyanycompactthestateauthority，astheyareagainsthimwhohasdonethestateaninjury:ithastherighttoforcehimasbestitcan，eithertosubmit，ortocontractanalliance。

[16:7](82)Lastly，treasoncanonlybecommittedbysubjects，whobycompact，eithertacitorexpressed，havetransferredalltheirrightstothestate:asubjectissaidtohavecommittedthiscrimewhenhehasattempted，forwhateverreason，toseizethesovereignpower，ortoplaceitindifferenthands。(83)Isay，hasattempted，forifpunishmentwerenottoovertakehimtillhehadsucceeded，itwouldoftencometoolate，thesovereignrightswouldhavebeenacquiredortransferredalready。

(16:84)Ialsosay，hasattempted，forwhateverreason，toseizethesovereignpower，andIrecognizenodifferencewhethersuchanattemptshouldbefollowedbypubliclossorpublicgain。(85)Whateverbehisreasonforacting，thecrimeistreason，andheisrightlycondemned:inwar，everyonewouldadmitthejusticeofhissentence。(86)Ifamandoesnotkeeptohispost，butapproachestheenemywithouttheknowledgeofhiscommander，whatevermaybehismotive，solongasheactsonhisownmotion，evenifheadvanceswiththedesignofdefeatingtheenemy，heisrightlyputtodeath，becausehehasviolatedhisoath，andinfringedtherightsofhiscommander。(87)Thatallcitizensareequallyboundbytheserightsintimeofpeace，isnotsogenerallyrecognized，butthereasonsforobedienceareinbothcasesidentical。(88)Thestatemustbepreservedanddirectedbythesoleauthorityofthesovereign，andsuchauthorityandrighthavebeenaccordedbyuniversalconsenttohimalone:if，therefore，anyoneelseattempts，withouthisconsent，toexecuteanypublicenterprise，eventhoughthestatemight(aswesaid)reapbenefittherefrom，suchpersonhasnonethelessinfringedthesovereignsright，andwouldberightlypunishedfortreason。

(16:89)Inorderthateveryscruplemayberemoved，wemaynowanswertheinquiry，whetherourformerassertionthateveryonewhohasnotthepracticeofreason，may，inthestateofnature，livebysovereignnaturalright，accordingtothelawsofhisdesires，isnotindirectoppositiontothelawandrightofGodasrevealed。(90)Forasallmenabsolutely(whethertheybelessendowedwithreasonormore)areequallyboundbytheDivinecommandtolovetheirneighbourasthemselves，itmaybesaidthattheycannot，withoutwrong，doinjurytoanyone，orliveaccordingtotheirdesires。

(16:91)Thisobjection，sofarasthestateofnatureisconcerned，canbeeasilyanswered，forthestateofnatureis，bothinnatureandintime，priortoreligion。(92)NooneknowsbynaturethatheowesanyobediencetoGod[Endnote28]，norcanheattaintheretobyanyexerciseofhisreason，butsolelybyrevelationconfirmedbysigns。(93)Therefore，previoustorevelation，nooneisboundbyaDivinelawandrightofwhichheisnecessarilyinignorance。(94)Thestateofnaturemustbynomeansbeconfoundedwithastateofreligion，butmustbeconceivedaswithouteitherreligionorlaw，andconsequentlywithoutsinorwrong:thisishowwehavedescribedit，andweareconfirmedbytheauthorityofPaul。(95)Itisnotonlyinrespectofignorancethatweconceivethestateofnatureaspriorto，andlackingtheDivinerevealedlawandright；butinrespectoffreedomalso，wherewithallmenarebornendowed。

(16:96)IfmenwerenaturallyboundbytheDivinelawandright，oriftheDivinelawandrightwereanaturalnecessity，therewouldhavebeennoneedforGodtomakeacovenantwithmankind，andtobindthemtheretowithanoathandagreement。

(16:97)Wemust，then，fullygrantthattheDivinelawandrightoriginatedatthetimewhenmenbyexpresscovenantagreedtoobeyGodinallthings，andceded，asitwere，theirnaturalfreedom，transferringtheirrightstoGodinthemannerdescribedinspeakingoftheformationofastate。

(98)However，Iwilltreatofthesemattersmoreatlengthpresently。

[16:8](99)ItmaybeinsistedthatsovereignsareasmuchboundbytheDivinelawassubjects:whereaswehaveassertedthattheyretaintheirnaturalrights，andmaydowhatevertheylike。

(16:100)Inordertoclearupthewholedifficulty，whicharisesratherconcerningthenaturalrightthanthenaturalstate，Imaintainthateveryoneisbound，inthestateofnature，toliveaccordingtoDivinelaw，inthesamewayasheisboundtoliveaccordingtothedictatesofsoundreason；namely，inasmuchasitistohisadvantage，andnecessaryforhissalvation；but，ifhewillnotsolive，hemaydootherwiseathisownrisk。

(101)Heisthusboundtoliveaccordingtohisownlaws，notaccordingtoanyoneelse"s，andtorecognizenomanasajudge，orasasuperiorinreligion。(102)Such，inmyopinion，isthepositionofasovereign，forhemaytakeadvicefromhisfellow-men，butheisnotboundtorecognizeanyasajudge，noranyonebesideshimselfasanarbitratoronanyquestionofright，unlessitbeaprophetsentexpresslybyGodandattestinghismissionbyindisputablesigns。(103)Eventhenhedoesnotrecognizeaman，butGodHimselfasHisjudge。

[16:9](104)IfasovereignrefusestoobeyGodasrevealedinHislaw，hedoessoathisownriskandloss，butwithoutviolatinganycivilornaturalright。(105)Forthecivilrightisdependentonhisowndecree；andnaturalrightisdependentonthelawsofnature，whichlatterarenotadaptedtoreligion，whosesoleaimisthegoodofhumanity，buttotheorderofnature-thatis，toGod"seternaldecreeunknowntous。

(16:106)ThistruthseemstobeadumbratedinasomewhatobscurerformbythosewhomaintainthatmencansinagainstGod"srevelation，butnotagainsttheeternaldecreebywhichHehasordainedallthings。

(107)Wemaybeasked，whatshouldwedoifthesovereigncommandsanythingcontrarytoreligion，andtheobediencewhichwehaveexpresslyvowedtoGod?shouldweobeytheDivinelaworthehumanlaw?(108)Ishalltreatofthisquestionatlengthhereafter，andwillthereforemerelysaynow，thatGodshouldbeobeyedbeforeallelse，whenwehaveacertainandindisputablerevelationofHiswill:butmenareverypronetoerroronreligioussubjects，and，accordingtothediversityoftheirdispositions，arewontwithconsiderablestirtoputforwardtheirowninventions，asexperiencemorethansufficientlyattests，sothatifnoonewereboundtoobeythestateinmatterswhich，inhisownopinionconcernreligion，therightsofthestatewouldbedependentoneveryman"sjudgmentandpassions。(109)Noonewouldconsiderhimselfboundtoobeylawsframedagainsthisfaithorsuperstition；andonthispretexthemightassumeunboundedlicense。(110)Inthisway，therightsofthecivilauthoritieswouldbeutterlysetatnought，sothatwemustconcludethatthesovereignpower，whichaloneisboundbothbyDivineandnaturalrighttopreserveandguardthelawsofthestate，shouldhavesupremeauthorityformakinganylawsaboutreligionwhichitthinksfit；allareboundtoobeyitsbehestsonthesubjectinaccordancewiththeirpromisewhichGodbidsthemtokeep。

(16:111)However，ifthesovereignpowerbeheathen，weshouldeitherenterintonoengagementstherewith，andyieldupourlivessoonerthantransfertoitanyofourrights；or，iftheengagementbemade，andourrightstransferred，weshould(inasmuchasweshouldhaveourselvestransferredtherightofdefendingourselvesandourreligion)beboundtoobeythem，andtokeepourword:wemightevenrightlybeboundsotodo，exceptinthosecaseswhereGod，byindisputablerevelation，haspromisedHisspecialaidagainsttyranny，orgivenusspecialexemptionfromobedience。(112)Thusweseethat，ofalltheJewsinBabylon，therewereonlythreeyouthswhowerecertainofthehelpofGod，and，therefore，refusedtoobeyNebuchadnezzar。

(113)Alltherest，withthesoleexceptionofDaniel，whowasbelovedbytheking，weredoubtlesscompelledbyrighttoobey，perhapsthinkingthattheyhadbeendeliveredupbyGodintothehandsoftheking，andthatthekinghadobtainedandpreservedhisdominionbyGod"sdesign。(114)Ontheotherhand，Eleazar，beforehiscountryhadutterlyfallen，wishedtogiveaproofofhisconstancytohiscompatriots，inorderthattheymightfollowinhisfootsteps，andgotoanylengths，ratherthanallowtheirrightandpowertobetransferredtotheGreeks，orbraveanytortureratherthanswearallegiancetotheheathen。(115)InstancesareoccurringeverydayinconfirmationofwhatIhereadvance。(116)TherulersofChristiankingdomsdonothesitate，withaviewtostrengtheningtheirdominion，tomaketreatieswithTurksandheathen，andtogiveorderstotheirsubjectswhosettleamongsuchpeoplesnottoassumemorefreedom，eitherinthingssecularorreligious，thanissetdowninthetreaty，orallowedbytheforeigngovernment。(117)WemayseethisexemplifiedintheDutchtreatywiththeJapanese，whichIhavealreadymentioned。

[17:0]CHAPTERXVII-ITISSHOWNTHATNOONECAN，OR

NEED，TRANSFERALLHISRIGHTSTOTHESOVEREIGNPOWER。

OFTHEHEBREWREPUBLIC，ASITWASDURINGTHELIFETIME

OFMOSES，ANDAFTERHISDEATH，TILLTHEFOUNDATION

OFTHEMONARCHY；ANDOFITSEXCELLENCE。LASTLY，OF

THECAUSESWHYTHETHEOCRATICREPUBLICFELL，ANDWHY

ITCOULDHARDLYHAVECONTINUEDWITHOUTDISSENSION。

[17:1](1)Thetheoryputforwardinthelastchapter，oftheuniversalrightsofthesovereignpower，andofthenaturalrightsoftheindividualtransferredthereto，thoughitcorrespondsinmanyrespectswithactualpractice，andthoughpracticemaybesoarrangedastoconformtoitmoreandmore，mustneverthelessalwaysremaininmanyrespectspurelyideal。(2)

Noonecaneversoutterlytransfertoanotherhispowerand，consequently，hisrights，astoceasetobeaman；norcanthereeverbeapowersosovereignthatitcancarryouteverypossiblewish。(3)Itwillalwaysbevaintoorderasubjecttohatewhathebelievesbringshimadvantage，ortolovewhatbringshimloss，ornottobeoffendedatinsults，ornottowishtobefreefromfear，orahundredotherthingsofthesort，whichnecessarilyfollowfromthelawsofhumannature。(4)Somuch，Ithink，isabundantlyshownbyexperience:formenhaveneversofarcededtheirpowerastoceasetobeanobjectoffeartotherulerswhoreceivedsuchpowerandright；anddominionshavealwaysbeeninasmuchdangerfromtheirownsubjectsasfromexternalenemies。(5)Ifitwerereallythecase，thatmencouldbedeprivedoftheirnaturalrightssoutterlyasnevertohaveanyfurtherinfluenceonaffairs[Endnote29]，exceptwiththepermissionoftheholdersofsovereignright，itwouldthenbepossibletomaintainwithimpunitythemostviolenttyranny，which，Isuppose，noonewouldforaninstantadmit。

(17:6)Wemust，therefore，grantthateverymanretainssomepartofhisright，independenceonhisowndecision，andnooneelse"s。

(7)However，inordercorrectlytounderstandtheextentofthesovereign"srightandpower，wemusttakenoticethatitdoesnotcoveronlythoseactionstowhichitcancompelmenbyfear，butabsolutelyeveryactionwhichitcaninducementoperform:foritisthefactofobedience，notthemotiveforobedience，whichmakesamanasubject。

(17:8)Whateverbethecausewhichleadsamantoobeythecommandsofthesovereign，whetheritbefearorhope，orloveofhiscountry，oranyotheremotion-thefactremainsthatthemantakescounselwithhimself，andneverthelessactsashissovereignorders。(9)Wemustnot，therefore，assertthatallactionsresultingfromaman"sdeliberationwithhimselfaredoneinobediencetotherightsoftheindividualratherthanthesovereign:

asamatteroffact，allactionsspringfromaman"sdeliberationwithhimself，whetherthedeterminingmotivebeloveorfearofpunishment；

therefore，eitherdominiondoesnotexist，andhasnorightsoveritssubjects，orelseitextendsovereveryinstanceinwhichitcanprevailonmentodecidetoobeyit。(10)Consequently，everyactionwhichasubjectperformsinaccordancewiththecommandsofthesovereign，whethersuchactionspringsfromlove，orfear，or(asismorefrequentlythecase)fromhopeandfeartogether，orfromreverence。compoundedoffearandadmiration，or，indeed，anymotivewhatever，isperformedinvirtueofhissubmissiontothesovereign，andnotinvirtueofhisownauthority。

(17:11)Thispointismadestillmoreclearbythefactthatobediencedoesnotconsistsomuchintheoutwardactasinthementalstateofthepersonobeying；sothatheismostunderthedominionofanotherwhowithhiswholeheartdeterminestoobeyanother"scommands；andconsequentlythefirmestdominionbelongstothesovereignwhohasmostinfluenceoverthemindsofhissubjects；ifthosewhoaremostfearedpossessedthefirmestdominion，thefirmestdominionwouldbelongtothesubjectsofatyrant，fortheyarealwaysgreatlyfearedbytheirruler。(12)Furthermore，thoughitisimpossibletogovernthemindascompletelyasthetongue，neverthelessmindsare，toacertainextent，underthecontrolofthesovereign，forhecaninmanywaysbringaboutthatthegreatestpartofhissubjectsshouldfollowhiswishesintheirbeliefs，theirloves，andtheirhates。(13)

Thoughsuchemotionsdonotariseattheexpresscommandofthesovereigntheyoftenresult(asexperienceshows)fromtheauthorityofhispower，andfromhisdirection；inotherwords，invirtueofhisright；wemay，therefore，withoutdoingviolencetoourunderstanding，conceivemenwhofollowtheinstigationoftheirsovereignintheirbeliefs，theirloves，theirhates，theircontempt，andallotheremotionswhatsoever。

(17:14)Thoughthepowersofgovernment，asthusconceived，aresufficientlyample，theycanneverbecomelargeenoughtoexecuteeverypossiblewishoftheirpossessors。(15)This，Ithink，Ihavealreadyshownclearlyenough。

(16)ThemethodofformingadominionwhichshouldprovelastingIdonot，asIhavesaid，intendtodiscuss，butinordertoarriveattheobjectI

haveinview，IwilltouchontheteachingofDivinerevelationtoMosesinthisrespect，andwewillconsiderthehistoryandthesuccessoftheJews，gatheringtherefromwhatshouldbethechiefconcessionsmadebysovereignstotheirsubjectswithaviewtothesecurityandincreaseoftheirdominion。

[17:2](17)Thatthepreservationofastatechieflydependsonthesubjects"fidelityandconstancyincarryingouttheorderstheyreceive，ismostclearlytaughtbothbyreasonandexperience；howsubjectsoughttobeguidedsoasbesttopreservetheirfidelityandvirtueisnotsoobvious。

(18)All，bothrulersandruled，aremen，andpronetofollowaftertheirlusts。(19)Thefickledispositionofthemultitudealmostreducesthosewhohaveexperienceofittodespair，foritisgovernedsolelybyemotions，notbyreason:itrushesheadlongintoeveryenterprise，andiseasilycorruptedeitherbyavariceorluxury:everyonethinkshimselfomniscientandwishestofashionallthingstohisliking，judgingathingtobejustorunjust，lawfulorunlawful，accordingashethinksitwillbringhimprofitorloss:

vanityleadshimtodespisehisequals，andrefusetheirguidance:envyofsuperiorfameorfortune(forsuchgiftsareneverequallydistributed)

leadshimtodesireandrejoiceinhisneighbour"sdownfall。(20)Ineednotgothroughthewholelist，everyoneknowsalreadyhowmuchcrime。

resultsfromdisgustatthepresent-desireforchange，headlonganger，andcontemptforpoverty-andhowmen"smindsareengrossedandkeptinturmoilthereby。

(17:21)Toguardagainstalltheseevils，andformadominionwherenoroomisleftfordeceit；toframeourinstitutionssothateveryman，whateverhisdisposition，maypreferpublicrighttoprivateadvantage，thisisthetaskandthisthetoil。(22)Necessityisoftenthemotherofinvention，butshehasneveryetsucceededinframingadominionthatwasinlessdangerfromitsowncitizensthanfromopenenemies，orwhoserulersdidnotfearthelatterlessthantheformer。(23)WitnessthestateofRome，invinciblebyherenemies，butmanytimesconqueredandsorelyoppressedbyherowncitizens，especiallyinthewarbetweenVespasianandVitellius。(24)(SeeTacitus，Hist。bk。iv。foradescriptionofthepitiablestateofthecity。)

(17:25)Alexanderthoughtprestigeabroadmoreeasytoacquirethanprestigeathome，andbelievedthathisgreatnesscouldbedestroyedbyhisownfollowers。(26)Fearingsuchadisaster，hethusaddressedhisfriends:

"Keepmesafefrominternaltreacheryanddomesticplots，andIwillfrontwithoutfearthedangersofbattleandofwar。(27)Philipwasmoresecureinthebattlearraythaninthetheatre:heoftenescapedfromthehandsoftheenemy，hecouldnotescapefromhisownsubjects。(28)Ifyouthinkoverthedeathsofkings，youwillcountupmorewhohavediedbytheassassinthanbytheopenfoe。"(Q。Curtius，chap。vi。)

(17:29)Forthesakeofmakingthemselvessecure，kingswhoseizedthethroneinancienttimesusedtotrytospreadtheideathattheyweredescendedfromtheimmortalgods，thinkingthatiftheirsubjectsandtherestofmankinddidnotlookonthemasequals，butbelievedthemtobegods，theywouldwillinglysubmittotheirrule，andobeytheircommands。

(30)ThusAugustuspersuadedtheRomansthathewasdescendedfromAEneas，whowasthesonofVenus，andnumberedamongthegods。(31)"Hewishedhimselftobeworshippedintemples，likethegods，withflamensandpriests。"(Tacitus，Ann。i。10。)

(17:32)AlexanderwishedtobesalutedasthesonofJupiter，notfrommotivesofpridebutofpolicy，asheshowedbyhisanswertotheinvectiveofHermolaus:"Itisalmostlaughable，"saidhe，thatHermolausaskedmetocontradictJupiter，bywhoseoracleIamrecognized。(33)AmIresponsiblefortheanswersofthegods?(34)Itofferedmethenameofson；

acquiescencewasbynomeansforeigntomypresentdesigns。(35)WouldthattheIndiansalsowouldbelievemetobeagod!(36)Warsarecarriedthroughbyprestige，falsehoodsthatarebelievedoftengaintheforceoftruth。"

(Curtius，viii，。Para，8。)(37)Inthesefewwordshecleverlycontrivestopalmoffafictionontheignorant，andatthesametimehintsatthemotiveforthedeception。

(17:38)Cleon，inhisspeechpersuadingtheMacedonianstoobeytheirking，adoptedasimilardevice:foraftergoingthroughthepraisesofAlexanderwithadmiration，andrecallinghismerits，heproceeds，"thePersiansarenotonlypious，butprudentinworshippingtheirkingsasgods:forkingshipistheshieldofpublicsafety，"andheendsthus，"I，myself，whenthekingentersabanquethall，shouldprostratemybodyontheground；othermenshoulddothelike，especiallythosewhoarewise"(Curtius，viii。

Para。66)。(39)However，theMacedoniansweremoreprudent-indeed，itisonlycompletebarbarianswhocanbesoopenlycajoled，andcansufferthemselvestobeturnedfromsubjectsintoslaveswithoutinterestsoftheirown。(40)Others，notwithstanding，havebeenablemoreeasilytospreadthebeliefthatkingshipissacred，andplaysthepartofGodontheearth，thatithasbeeninstitutedbyGod，notbythesuffrageandconsentofmen；andthatitispreservedandguardedbyDivinespecialprovidenceandaid。

(41)Similarfictionshavebeenpromulgatedbymonarchs，withtheobjectofstrengtheningtheirdominion，buttheseIwillpassover，andinordertoarriveatmymainpurpose，willmerelyrecallanddiscusstheteachingonthesubjectofDivinerevelationtoMosesinancienttimes。

[17:3](42)WehavesaidinChap。V。thataftertheHebrewscameupoutofEgypttheywerenotboundbythelawandrightofanyothernation，butwereatlibertytoinstituteanynewritesattheirpleasure，andtooccupywhateverterritorytheychose。(43)AftertheirliberationfromtheintolerablebondageoftheEgyptians，theywereboundbynocovenanttoanyman；and，therefore，everymanenteredintohisnaturalright，andwasfreetoretainitortogiveitup，andtransferittoanother。(44)Being，then，inthestateofnature，theyfollowedtheadviceofMoses，inwhomtheychieflytrusted，anddecidedtotransfertheirrighttonohumanbeing，butonlytoGod；withoutfurtherdelaytheyall，withonevoice，promisedtoobeyallthecommandsoftheDeity，andtoacknowledgenorightthatHedidnotproclaimassuchbypropheticrevelation。(45)Thispromise，ortransferenceofrighttoGod，waseffectedinthesamemanneraswehaveconceivedittohavebeeninordinarysocieties，whenmenagreetodivestthemselvesoftheirnaturalrights。(46)Itis，infact，invirtueofasetcovenant，andanoath(seeExod。xxxiv:10)，thattheJewsfreely，andnotundercompulsionorthreats，surrenderedtheirrightsandtransferredthemtoGod。(47)Moreover，inorderthatthiscovenantmightberatifiedandsettled，andmightbefreefromallsuspicionofdeceit，GoddidnotenterintoittilltheJewshadhadexperienceofHiswonderfulpowerbywhichalonetheyhadbeen，orcouldbe，preservedinastateofprosperity(Exod。xix:4，5)。(48)ItisbecausetheybelievedthatnothingbutGod"spowercouldpreservethemthattheysurrenderedtoGodthenaturalpowerofself-preservation，whichtheyformerly，perhaps，thoughttheypossessed，andconsequentlytheysurrenderedatthesametimealltheirnaturalright。

[17:4](49)Godalone，therefore，helddominionovertheHebrews，whosestatewasinvirtueofthecovenantcalledGod"skingdom，andGodwassaidtobetheirking；consequentlytheenemiesoftheJewsweresaidtobetheenemiesofGod，andthecitizenswhotriedtoseizethedominionwereguiltyoftreasonagainstGod；and，lastly，thelawsofthestatewerecalledthelawsandcommandmentsofGod。(50)ThusintheHebrewstatethecivilandreligiousauthority，eachconsistingsolelyofobediencetoGod，wereoneandthesame。(51)Thedogmasofreligionwerenotprecepts，butlawsandordinances；pietywasregardedasthesameasloyalty，impietyasthesameasdisaffection。(52)Everyonewhofellawayfromreligionceasedtobeacitizen，andwas，onthatgroundalone，accountedanenemy:thosewhodiedforthesakeofreligion，wereheldtohavediedfortheircountry；

infact，betweencivilandreligiouslawandrighttherewasnodistinctionwhatever。{inBiblicalHebrew，therewasnowordforwhatwecallReligion。"

ModernHebrewhasselectedawordwhoserootis"knowledge。"}(53)ForthisreasonthegovernmentcouldbecalledaTheocracy，inasmuchasthecitizenswerenotboundbyanythingsavetherevelationsofGod。

(17:54)However，thisstateofthingsexistedratherintheorythaninpractice，foritwillappearfromwhatweareabouttosay，thattheHebrews，asamatteroffact，retainedabsolutelyintheirownhandstherightofsovereignty:thisisshownbythemethodandplanbywhichthegovernmentwascarriedon，asIwillnowexplain。

(17:55)InasmuchastheHebrewsdidnottransfertheirrightstoanyotherpersonbut，asinademocracy，allsurrenderedtheirrightsequally，andcriedoutwithonevoice，"WhatsoeverGodshallspeak(nomediatorormouthpiecebeingnamed)thatwillwedo，"itfollowsthatallwereequallyboundbythecovenant，andthatallhadanequalrighttoconsulttheDeity，toacceptandtointerpretHislaws，sothatallhadanexactlyequalshareinthegovernment。[17:5](56)ThusatfirsttheyallapproachedGodtogether，sothattheymightlearnHiscommands，butinthisfirstsalutation，theyweresothoroughlyterrifiedandsoastoundedtohearGodspeaking，thattheythoughttheirlasthourwasathand:fulloffear，therefore，theywentafreshtoMoses，andsaid，"Lo，wehaveheardGodspeakinginthefire，andthereisnocausewhyweshouldwishtodie:

surelythisgreatfirewillconsumeus:ifwehearagainthevoiceofGod，weshallsurelydie。(57)Thou，therefore，gonear，andhearallthewordsofourGod，andthou(notGod)shaltspeakwithus:allthatGodshalltellus，thatwillwehearkentoandperform。"

(17:58)Theythusclearlyabrogatedtheirformercovenant，andabsolutelytransferredtoMosestheirrighttoconsultGodandinterpretHiscommands:

fortheydonotherepromiseobediencetoallthatGodshalltellthem，buttoallthatGodshalltellMoses(seeDeut。v:20aftertheDecalogue，andchap。xviii:15，16)。(59)Moses，therefore，remainedthesolepromulgatorandinterpreteroftheDivinelaws，andconsequentlyalsothesovereignjudge，whocouldnotbearraignedhimself，andwhoactedamongtheHebrewsthepart，ofGod；inotherwords，heldthesovereignkingship:healonehadtherighttoconsultGod，togivetheDivineanswerstothepeople，andtoseethattheywerecarriedout。(60)Isayhealone，forifanyoneduringthelifeofMoseswasdesirousofpreachinganythinginthenameoftheLord，hewas，evenifatrueprophet，consideredguiltyandausurperofthesovereignright(Numb。xi:28)[Endnote30]。(61)Wemayherenotice，thatthoughthepeoplehadelectedMoses，theycouldnotrightfullyelectMoses"ssuccessor；forhavingtransferredtoMosestheirrightofconsultingGod，andabsolutelypromisedtoregardhimasaDivineoracle，theyhadplainlyforfeitedthewholeoftheirright，andwereboundtoacceptaschosenbyGodanyoneproclaimedbyMosesashissuccessor。(62)IfMoseshadsochosenhissuccessor，wholikehimshouldwieldthesolerightofgovernment，possessingthesolerightofconsultingGod，andconsequentlyofmakingandabrogatinglaws，ofdecidingonpeaceorwar，ofsendingambassadors，appointingjudges-infact，dischargingallthefunctionsofasovereign，thestatewouldhavebecomesimplyamonarchy，onlydifferingfromothermonarchiesinthefact，thatthelatterare，orshouldbe，carriedoninaccordancewithGod"sdecree，unknowneventothemonarch，whereastheHebrewmonarchwouldhavebeentheonlypersontowhomthedecreewasrevealed。(63)Adifferencewhichincreases，ratherthandiminishesthemonarch"sauthority。(64)Asfarasthepeopleinbothcasesareconcerned，eachwouldbeequallysubject，andequallyignorantoftheDivinedecree，foreachwouldbedependentonthemonarch"swords，andwouldlearnfromhimalone，whatwaslawfulorunlawful:norwouldthefactthatthepeoplebelievedthatthemonarchwasonlyissuingcommandsinaccordancewithGod"sdecreerevealedtohim，makeitlessinsubjection，butrathermore。[17:6](65)However，Moseselectednosuchsuccessor，butleftthedominiontothosewhocameafterhiminaconditionwhichcouldnotbecalledapopulargovernment，noranaristocracy，noramonarchy，butaTheocracy。(66)Fortherightofinterpretinglawswasvestedinoneman，whiletherightandpowerofadministeringthestateaccordingtothelawsthusinterpreted，wasvestedinanotherman(seeNumb。xxvii:21)

[Endnote31]。

(17:67)Inorderthatthequestionmaybethoroughlyunderstood，Iwilldulysetforththeadministrationofthewholestate。

(68)First，thepeoplewerecommandedtobuildatabernacle，whichshouldbe，asitwere，thedwellingofGod-thatis，ofthesovereignauthorityofthestate。(69)Thistabernaclewastobeerectedatthecostofthewholepeople，notofoneman，inorderthattheplacewhereGodwasconsultedmightbepublicproperty。(70)TheLeviteswerechosenascourtiersandadministratorsofthisroyalabode；whileAaron，thebrotherofMoses，waschosentobetheirchiefandsecond，asitwere，toGodtheirKing，beingsucceededintheofficebyhislegitimatesons。

(17:71)He，asthenearesttoGod，wasthesovereigninterpreteroftheDivinelaws；hecommunicatedtheanswersoftheDivineoracletothepeople，andentreatedGod"sfavourforthem。(72)If，inadditiontotheseprivileges，hehadpossessedtherightofruling，hewouldhavebeenneithermorenorlessthananabsolutemonarch；but，inrespecttogovernment，hewasonlyaprivatecitizen:thewholetribeofLeviwassocompletelydivestedofgoverningrightsthatitdidnoteventakeitssharewiththeothersinthepartitionofterritory。(73)Mosesprovidedforitssupportbyinspiringthecommonpeoplewithgreatreverenceforit，astheonlytribededicatedtoGod。

(17:74)Further，thearmy，formedfromtheremainingtwelvetribes，wascommandedtoinvadethelandofCanaan，todivideitintotwelveportions，andtodistributeitamongthetribesbylot。(75)Forthistasktwelvecaptainswerechosen，onefromeverytribe，andwere，togetherwithJoshuaandEleazar，thehighpriest，empoweredtodividethelandintotwelveequalparts，anddistributeitbylot。(76)Joshuawaschosenforthechiefcommandofthearmy，inasmuchasnonebuthehadtherighttoconsultGodinemergencies，notlikeMoses，aloneinhistent，orinthetabernacle，butthroughthehighpriest，towhomonlytheanswersofGodwererevealed。(77)Furthermore，hewasempoweredtoexecute，andcausethepeopletoobeyGod"scommands，transmittedthroughthehighpriests；tofind，andtomakeuseof，meansforcarryingthemout；tochooseasmany，armycaptainsasheliked；tomakewhateverchoicehethoughtbest；tosendambassadorsinhisownname；and，inshort，tohavetheentirecontrolofthewar。(78)Tohisofficetherewasnorightfulsuccessor-indeed，thepostwasonlyfilledbythedirectorderoftheDeity，onoccasionsofpublicemergency。(79)Inordinarytimes，allthemanagementofpeaceandwarwasvestedinthecaptainsofthetribes，asIwillshortlypointout。

(80)Lastly，allmenbetweentheagesoftwentyandsixtywereorderedtobeararms，andformacitizenarmy，owingallegiance，nottoitsgeneral-in-