第3章
Aquestionwasmade,whethertheauthoritiesofPennsylvaniashouldnotdeliverupDeLangechampstotheFrenchGovernment,tobedealtwithattheirpleasure.ItdoesnotappearthattheFederalGovernmentwasconsideredtopossessanypoweroverthesubject,orthatitwasdeemedpropertoinvokeitscounselorauthorityinanyform.Thiscaseoccurredin1784,aftertheadoptionoftheArticlesofConfederation;butifthepowersoftheFederalGovernmentwerelessunderthosearticlesthanbefore,itonlyprovesthat,howevergreatitspreviouspowersmayhavebeen,theywereheldatthewilloftheStates,andwereactuallyrecalledbytheArticlesofConfederation.Thusitappearsthat,intheimportantfunctionsofraisinganarmy,ofprovidingapublicrevenue,ofpayingpublicdebts,andgivingsecuritytothepersonsofforeignministers,theboasted"sovereignty"
oftheFederalGovernmentwasmerelynominal,andoweditsentireefficiencytotheco-operationandaidoftheStategovernments.Congresshadnopowertocoercethesegovernments;norcoulditexerciseanydirectauthorityovertheirindividualcitizens.
AlthoughthepowersactuallyassumedandexercisedbyCongresswerecertainlyverygreat,theywerenotalwaysacquiescedin,orallowed,bytheStates.Thus,thepowertolayanembargowasearnestlydesiredbythem,butwasdeniedbytheStates.Andinorderthemoreclearlytoindicatethatmanyoftheirpowerswereexercisedmerelybysufferance,andatthesametimetolendasanctiontotheirauthoritysofarastheychosetoallowit,itwasdeemednecessary,byatleastoneoftheStates,topasslawsindemnifyingthosewhomightactinobediencetotheresolutionsofthatbody.8
Aconclusiveproof,however,ofthetruerelationwhichthecoloniesholdtotherevolutionarygovernment,evenintheopinionofCongressitself,isfurnishedbytheirownjournals.InJune,1776,thatbodyrecommendedthepassingoflawsforthepunishmentoftreason;andtheydeclarethatthecrimeshallbeconsideredascommittedagainstthecoloniesindividually,andnotagainstthemall,asunitedorconfederatedtogether.Thiscouldscarcelyhavebeenso,iftheyhadconsideredthemselves"agovernmentdefactoanddejure,"clothedwith"sovereignauthority."Theauthor,however,isnotsatisfiedtoresthisopinionuponhistoricalfacts;heseeksalsotofortifyhimselfbyajudicialdecision.Heinformsusthat,"soonaftertheorganizationofthepresentgovernment,thequestion[ofthepowersoftheContinentalCongress]wasmostelaboratelydiscussedbeforetheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates,inacasecallingforanexpositionoftheappellatejurisdictionofCongressinprizecauses,beforetheratificationoftheConfederation.Theresultofthatexaminationwas,thatCongress,beforetheConfederation,possessed,bytheconsentofthepeopleoftheUnitedStates,sovereignandsupremepowersfornationalpurposes;and,amongothers,thesupremepowersofpeaceandwar,and,asanincident,therightofentertainingappealsinthelastresort,inprizecauses,eveninoppositiontoStatelegislation.AndthattheactualpowersexercisedbyCongress,inrespecttonationalobjects,furnishedthebestexpositionofitsconstitutionalauthority,sincetheyemanatedfromthepeople,andwereacquiescedinbythepeople."
Thereisinthispassagegreatwantofaccuracy,andperhapssomewantofcandor.Theauthor,asusual,neglectstocitethejudicialdecisiontowhichhealludes,butitmustbethecaseofPenhallowandothersagainstDoane"sadministrators.(3Dallas"Reports,54.)Congress,inNovember,1775,passedaresolution,recommendingtotheseveralcoloniestoestablishprizecourts,witharightofappealfromtheirdecisionstoCongress.
In1776,NewHampshireaccordinglypassedalawuponthesubject,bywhichanappealtoCongresswasallowedincasesofcapturebyvesselsintheserviceoftheunitedcolonies;butwherethecapturewasmadeby"avesselintheserviceoftheunitedcoloniesandofanyparticularcolonyorpersontogether,"theappealwasallowedtotheSuperiorCourtofNewHampshire.
ThebrigantineSusannawascapturedbyavesselownedandcommandedbycitizensofNewHampshire,andwasdulycondemnedasprizebyherownCourtofAdmiralty.AnappealwasprayedtoCongressanddenied;andthereuponanappealtotheSuperiorCourtofNewHampshirewasprayedandallowed.
FromthedecisionofthisCourtanappealwastakentoCongress,inthemodeprescribedbytheirresolution,andthecasewasdisposedofbytheCourtofAppeals,appointedbyCongresstotakecognizanceofsuchcases.
AftertheadoptionofthepresentConstitutionandtheorganizationofthejudiciarysystemunderit,alibelwasfiledintheDistrictCourtofNewHampshire,tocarryintoeffectthesentenceoftheCourtofAppealsabovementioned.ThecausebeinglegallytransferredtotheCircuitCourt,wasdecidedthere,andanappealallowedtotheSupremeCourt.ThatCourt,initsdecision,sustainsthejurisdictionoftheCourtofAppealsestablishedbyCongress.Mr.JusticePatterson"sopinionisfoundedmainlyuponthesegrounds:ThatthepowersactuallyexercisedbyCongressoughttobeconsideredaslegitimate,becausetheyweresuchastheoccasionabsolutelyrequired,andwereapprovedandacquiescedinby"thepeople";thattheauthorityultimatelyandfinallytodecideonallmattersandquestionstouchingthelawofnations,doesresideandisvestedinthesovereign,supremepowerofwarandpeace;thatthispowerwaslodgedintheContinentalCongressbytheconsentandacquiescenceof"thepeople";thatthelegalityofallcapturesonthehighseasmustbedeterminedbythelawofnations;thatNewHampshirehadcommittedherselfuponthissubject,byvotinginfavoroftheexerciseofthesamepowerbyCongressinthecaseofthebrigActive;
andasthecommission,underwhichthecaptureinthecaseunderconsiderationwasmade,wasissuedbyCongress,itresulted,ofnecessity,thatthevalidityofallcapturesmadebyvirtueofthatcommission,shouldbejudgedofbyCongress,oritsconstitutedauthority,because"everyonemustbeamenabletotheauthorityunderwhichheacts."Itisevidentthatthisopinion,whileitsustainstheauthorityofCongressintheparticularcase,doesnotproveitsgeneralsupremacy,northattheStateshadsurrenderedtoitanypartoftheirsovereigntyandindependence.Onthecontrary,itaffirmsthatthe"sovereignandsupremepowerofwarandpeace"wasassumedbyCongress,andthattheexerciseofitbecamelegitimate,onlybecauseitwasapprovedandacquiescedin;andthatthuslegitimated,theappellatejurisdictioninprizecasesfollowedasanecessaryincident.Allthepowers,whichPattersoncontendsforasexercisedbyCongress,mayallbeconceded,withoutintheslightestdegreeaffectingthequestionbeforeus;theywereasconsistentwiththecharacterofafederative,aswiththatofaconsolidatedgovernment.Hedoesnottellustowhatpeoplehealludes,whenhesaysthepowersexercisedbyCongresswereapprovedandratifiedby"thepeople."Hedoesnot,inanypartofhisopinion,authorizetheideaoftheauthor,that"Congresspossessed,beforetheConfederation,bytheconsentofthepeopleoftheUnitedStates,sovereignandsupremepowersfornationalpurposes."Onthecontrary,astooneofthesepowers,heholdstheoppositelanguage;and,therefore,itisfairtopresume,thatheintendedtobesounderstoodinregardtoalltherest.Thisishislanguage:"TheauthorityexercisedbyCongress,ingrantingcommissionstoprivateers,wasapprovedandratifiedbytheseveralcoloniesorStates,becausetheyreceivedandfilledupthecommissionsandbonds,andreturnedthelattertoCongress."Thisapprovalandratificationalonerendered,inhisopinion,theexerciseofthis,andothersimilarpowersassumedbyCongress,legitimate.
JudgeIredell,indeliveringhisopinion,goesmuchmorefullyintotheexaminationofthepowersoftherevolutionarygovernment.Hethinksthat,asthepowerofpeaceandwarwasentrustedtoCongress,theyheld,asanecessaryincident,thepowertoestablishprizecourts;andthatwhateverpowerstheydidinfactexercise,wereacquiescedinandconsentedto,and,consequently,legitimatedandconfirmed.Butheleavesnoroomtodoubtastothesourcewhencethisconfirmationwasderived.Afterprovingthattheseveralcolonieswere,toallintentsandpurposes,separateanddistinct,andthattheydidnotform"onepeople"inanysenseoftheterm,hesays:"IfCongress,previoustotheArticlesofConfederation,possessedanyauthority,itwasanauthority,asIhaveshown,derivedfromthepeopleofeachprovince,inthefirstinstance.""TheauthoritywasnotpossessedbyCongress,unlessgivenbyalltheStates.""Iconclude,therefore,thateveryparticleofauthority,whichoriginallyresidedeitherinCongressorinanybranchoftheStategovernments,wasderivedfromthepeoplewhowerepermanentinhabitantsofeachprovince,inthefirstinstance,andafterwardsbecamecitizensofeachState;thatthisauthoritywasconveyedbyeachbodyseparately,andnotbyallthepeopleintheseveralprovincesorStatesjointly."Nolanguagecouldbestrongerthanthis,todisarmJudgeStory"sconclusion,thatthepowersexercisedbyCongresswereexercised"bytheconsentofthepeopleoftheUnitedStates."Certainly,Iredelldidnotthinkso.
TheothertwoJudges,BlairandCushing,affirmthegeneralpropositionsuponwhichPattersonandIredellsustainedthepowerofCongressintheparticularcase,butlendusnosupporttotheideaofanysuchunityamongthepeopleoftheseveralcoloniesorStates,asourauthorsupposestohaveexisted.Cushing,withoutformallydiscussingthequestion,expresslysaysthat"hehasnodoubtofthesovereigntyoftheStates.""
Thisdecision,then,merelyaffirms,whatnoonehaseverthoughtofdenying,thattherevolutionarygovernmentexercisedeverypowerwhichtheoccasionrequired;that,amongthese,thepowersofpeaceandwarweremostimportant,becauseCongress,alone,representedallthecolonies,andcould,alone,expressthegeneralwill,andwieldthegeneralstrength;
thatwhereverthepowersofpeaceandwararelodged,belongsalsotherighttodecideallquestionstouchingthelawsofnations;thatprizecausesareofthischaracter;and,finally,thatallthesepowerswerenotderivedfromanyoriginalgrant,butaretobeconsideredasbelongingtoCongress,merelybecauseCongressexercisedthem,andbecausetheyweresustainedinsodoingbytheapprobationoftheseveralcoloniesorStates,whoserepresentativestheywere.Surely,then,ourauthorwasneitherveryaccuratenorverycandidinsostatingthisdecisionastogiverisetotheideathat,intheopinionoftheSupremeCourt,Congresspossessedoriginalsovereignpowers,bytheconsentof"thepeopleoftheUnitedStates."Even,however,iftheycourthadsodecided,inexpressterms,itwouldhavebeenofnovalueinthepresentinquiry,aswillby-and-bybeshown.
Theexaminationofthispartofthesubjecthasprobablyalreadybeendrawnouttotoogreatanextent;butitwouldnotbecompletewithoutsomenoticeofanotherground,uponwhichourauthorrestshisfavoriteidea?thatthepeopleofthecoloniesformed,"onepeople,"ornation.
Evenifthisunitywasnotproducedbytheappointmentoftherevolutionarygovernment,orbythenatureofthepowersexercisedbythem,andacquiescedinbythepeople,hethinkstherecanbenodoubtthatthiswasthenecessaryresultoftheDeclarationofindependence.Inorderthathemaybefullyunderstooduponthispoint,Iwilltranscribetheentirepassagerelatingtoit:"Inthenextplace,thecoloniesdidnotseverallyactforthemselves,andproclaimtheirownindependence.9ItistruethatsomeoftheStateshadpreviouslyformedincipientgovernmentsforthemselves;butitwasdoneincompliancewiththerecommendationsofCongress.Virginia,onthe29thofJune,1776,byaconventionofdelegates,declared"thegovernmentofthiscountry,asformerlyexercisedundertheCrownofGreatBritain,totallydissolved,"andproceededtoformanewconstitutionofgovernment.NewHampshirealsoformedanewgovernment,inDecember,1775,whichwasmanifestlyintendedtobetemporary,"during,"
astheysaid,"theunhappyandunnaturalcontestwithGreatBritain."NewJersey,too,establishedaframeofgovernment,onthe2dJuly,1776;butitwasexpresslydeclaredthatitshouldbevoiduponareconciliationwithGreatBritain.AndSouthCarolina,inMarch,1776,adoptedaconstitutionofgovernment;butthiswasinlikemanner"establisheduntilanaccommodationbetweenGreatBritainandAmericacouldbeobtained."Butthedeclarationoftheindependenceofallthecolonieswastheunitedactofall.Itwas"adeclarationoftherepresentativesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,inCongressassembled;""bythedelegatesappointedbythegoodpeopleofthecolonies,"asinapriordeclarationofrights,theywerecalled.
ItwasnotanactdonebytheStategovernmentsthenorganized,norbypersonschosenbythem.Itwasemphaticallytheactofthewholepeopleoftheunitedcolonies,bytheinstrumentalityoftheirrepresentatives,chosenforthat,amongotherpurposes.ItwasanactnotcompetenttotheStategovernments,oranyofthem,asorganizedundertheircharterstoadopt.Thosechartersneithercontemplatedthecasenorprovidedforit.
Itwasanactoforiginal,inherentsovereigntybythepeoplethemselves,resultingfromtheirrighttochangetheformofgovernment,andtoinstituteanewgovernment,whenevernecessaryfortheirsafetyandhappiness.SotheDeclarationofIndependencetreatsit.NoStatehadpresumed,ofitself,toformanewgovernment,ortoprovidefortheexigenciesofthetimes,withoutconsultingCongressonthesubject;andwhentheyacted,itwasinpursuanceoftherecommendationofCongress.Itwas,therefore,theachievementofthewhole,forthebenefitofthewhole.ThepeopleoftheunitedcoloniesmadetheunitedcoloniesfreeandindependentStates,andabsolvedthemfromallegiancetotheBritishCrown.TheDeclarationofIndependencehas,accordingly,alwaysbeentreatedasanactofparamountandsovereignauthority,completeandperfectperse;andipsofactoworkinganentiredissolutionofallpolitical,connectionwith,andallegianceto,GreatBritain.Andthis,notmerelyasapracticalfact,butinalegalandconstitutionalviewofthematterbycourtsofjustice."Thefirstquestionwhichthispassagenaturallysuggeststothemindofthereaderisthis:iftwoormorenationsofpeople,confessedlyseparate,distinctandindependent,eachhavingitsownpeculiargovernment,withoutany"directpoliticalconnectionwitheachother,"yetowingthesameallegiancetoonecommonsuperior,shoulduniteinadeclarationofrightswhichtheybelievedbelongedtoallofthemall,wouldthatcircumstancealonemakethem"onepeople?"StrippedofthecircumstanceswithwhichJudgeStoryhassurroundedit,thisis,atlast,theonlypropositioninvolved.IfSpain,Naples,andHolland,whiletheywere"dependencies"oftheImperialCrownofFrance,hadunitedindeclaringthattheywereoppressed,inthesamemodeanddegree,bythemeasuresofthatCrown,andthattheydid,forthatreason,disdainallallegiancetoit,andassumethestationof"freeandindependentStates,"wouldtheytherebyhavebecomeonepeople?
Barelythiswillnotbeassertedbyanyone.Weshouldsee,inthatact,nothingmorethantheunionofseveralindependentsovereignties,forthepurposeofeffectingacommonobject,whicheachfeltitselftooweaktoeffectalone.Nothingwouldbemorenatural,thanthatnationssosituatedshouldestablishacommonmilitarypower,acommontreasury,andacommonagency,throughwhich,tocarryontheirintercoursewithotherpowers;
butthatallthisshouldunitethemtogether,soastoformthemintoonenation,isaconsequencenotreadilyperceived.ThecaseheresupposedispreciselythatoftheAmericancolonies,ifthosecolonieswere,inpointof,fact,separate,distinct,andindependentofoneanother.Iftheywereso,(andIthinkithasbeenshownthattheywere),thenthefactthattheyunitedintheDeclarationofIndependencedoesnotmakethem"onepeople"anymorethanasimilardeclarationwouldhavemadeSpain,NaplesandHollandonepeople;iftheywerenotso,thentheywereonepeoplealready,andtheDeclarationofIndependencedidnotrenderthemmoreorlessidentical.Itistrue,theanalogyheresupposeddoesnotholdineveryparticular;therelationsofthecoloniestooneanotherwerecertainlycloser,inmanyrespects,thanthoseofSpain,NaplesandHolland,tooneanother.Butastoallpurposesinvolvedinthepresentinquiry,theanalogyisperfect.TheeffectattributedtotheDeclarationofIndependencepresupposesthatthecolonieswerenot"onepeople"before;
aneffectwhichisinnomannerchangedormodifiedbyanyothercircumstanceintheirrelationtooneanother.Thatfact,alone,isnecessarytobeinquiredinto;anduntilthatfactisascertained,theauthor"sreasoningastotheeffectoftheDeclarationofIndependence,inmakingthem"onepeople,"doesnotapply.Heisobliged,therefore,toabandonthegroundpreviouslytaken,towit:thatthecolonieswereonepeoplebeforetheDeclarationofIndependence.Andhavingabandonedit,heplacesthecolonies,asthisquestion,uponthefootingofanyotherseparateanddistinctnations;
and,astothese,itisquiteevidentthattheconclusionwhichhehasdrawn,inthecaseofthecolonies,couldnotbecorrect,unlessitwouldbeequallycorrectinthecaseofSpain,NaplesandHolland,abovesupposed.CHAPTERV.THEDECLARATIONOFINDEPENDENCEDIDNOTCONSOLIDATE
THECOLONIESINTOONEPEOPLE.Themerefact,then,thatthecoloniesunitedintheDeclarationofIndependence,didnotnecessarilymakethemonepeople.Butitmaybesaidthatthisfactought,atleast,tobereceivedasproofthattheyconsideredthemselvesasonepeoplealready.Theargumentisfair,andfreelyletitgoforwhatitisworth.TheopinionoftheCongressof1775,whateveritmayhavebeen,andhoweverstronglyexpressed,couldnotpossiblychangethehistoricalfacts.Itdependeduponthosefacts,alone,whetherthecolonieswereonepeopleornot.Theymightbytheiragreement,expressedthroughtheiragentsinCongress,makethemselvesonepeoplethroughalltimetocome;buttheirpower,astothismatter,couldnotextendtothetimepast.Indeed,itiscontended,notonlybyJudgeStory,butbyothers,thatthecoloniesdid,byandinthatact,agree,tobecome"onepeople"forthefuture.
Theysupposethatsuchagreementisimplied,ifnotexpressed,inthefollowingpassages:"We,therefore,therepresentativesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,"
"do,inthenameandbytheauthorityofthegoodpeopleofthesecolonies,solemnlypublishanddeclarethattheseunitedcoloniesare,andofrightoughttobe,freeandindependentStates."Letustestthecorrectnessofthisopinion,bythehistoryofthetime,andbytherulesoffaircriticism.
TheCongressof1775,bywhichindependencewasdeclared,wasappointed,ashasbeenbeforeshown,bythecoloniesintheirseparateanddistinctcapacity,eachactingforitself,andnotconjointlywithanyother.Theyweretherepresentativeseachofhisowncolony,andnotofanyother;
eachhadauthoritytoactinthenameofhisowncolony,andnotinthatofanyother;eachcolonygaveitsownvotebyitsownrepresentatives,andnotbythoseofanyothercolony.Ofcourse,itwasasseparateanddistinctcoloniesthattheydeliberatedontheDeclarationofIndependence.
When,therefore,theydeclare,intheadoptionofthatmeasure,thattheyactas"therepresentativesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,"and"inthenameandbytheauthorityofthegoodpeopleofthesecolonies,"theymustofcoursebeunderstoodasspeakinginthecharacterinwhichtheyhadallalongacted;thatis,astherepresentativesofseparateanddistinctcolonies,andnotasthejointrepresentativesofanyonepeople.Adecisiveproofofthisisfoundinthefactthatthecoloniesvotedontheadoptionofthatmeasureintheirseparatecharacter,eachgivingonevotebyallitsownrepresentatives,whoactedinstrictobediencetospecificinstructionsfromtheirrespectivecolonies,andthememberssignedtheDeclarationinthatway.So,also,whentheydeclaredthat"theseunitedcoloniesare,andofrightoughttobe,freeandindependentStates,"theymeantonlythattheirrespectivecommunities,whichuntilthenhadbeendependentcolonies,shouldthereafterbeindependentStates,andthatthesameunion,whichexistedbetweenthemascolonies,shouldbecontinuedbetweenthemasStates.Themeasureunderconsiderationlookedonlytotheirrelationtothemothercountry,andnottotheirrelationtooneanother;andthesolequestionbeforethemwas,whethertheyshouldcontinueinastateofdependenceontheBritishCrownornot.Havingdeterminedthattheywouldnot,theyfromthatmomentceasedtobecolonies,andbecameStates;
united,preciselyasbefore,forthecommonpurposeofachievingtheircommonliberty.Theideaofformingacloserunion,bythemereactofdeclaringthemselvesindependent,couldscarcelyhaveoccurredtoanyoneofthem.Thenecessityofsuchameasuremustbeapparenttoall,andithadlongbeforeengagedtheirattentioninadifferentform.Men,oftheirwisdomandforecast,meditatingameasuresonecessarytotheircommonsafety,wouldnothaveleftitasamerematterofinferencefromanothermeasureinpointoffact,itwasalreadybeforethem,intheformofadistinctproposition,andhadbeensoeversincetheirfirstmeetinginMay,1775,10itisimpossibletosuppose,therefore,incommonjusticetothesagacityofCongress,thattheymeantanythingmorebytheDeclarationofIndependence,thansimplytoseverthetiewhichhadtheretoforeboundthemtoEngland,andtoasserttherightsoftheseparateanddistinctcolonies,asseparateandindependentStatesparticularlyasthelanguagewhichtheyuseisfairlysusceptibleofthisconstruction.Theinstrumentitselfisentitled,"TheUnanimousDeclarationoftheThirteenUnitedStatesofAmerica";ofStates,separateanddistinctbodiespolitic,andnotof"onepeople"ornation,composedofallofthemtogether;"united,"asindependentStatesmaybe,bycompactoragreement,andnotamalgamated,astheywouldbe,iftheyformedonenationorbodypolitic.
Isittrue,then,asJudgeStorysupposes,that"thecoloniesdidnotseverallyactforthemselves,andproclaimtheirownindependence?"Itistruethattheyactedtogether;butisitnotequallytruethateachactedforitselfalone,withoutpretendingtoanyrightorauthoritytobindanyother?Theirdeclarationwassimplytheirjointexpressionoftheirseparatewills;eachexpressingitsownwill,andnotthatofanyother;eachboundbyitsownact,andnotresponsiblefortheactofanyother.Ifthecolonieshadseverallydeclaretheirindependencethroughtheirownlegislatures,andhadafterwardsagreedtounitetheirforcestogethertomakeacommoncauseoftheircontest,andtosubmittheircommonintereststothemanagementofacommoncouncilchosenbythemselves,whereinwouldtheirsituationhavebeendifferent?AndisittruethatthisDeclarationofIndependence"wasnotanactdonebytheStategovernmentsthenorganized,norbypersonschosenbythem?"that"itwasemphaticallytheactofthewholepeopleoftheunitedcolonies,bytheinstrumentalityoftheirrepresentativeschosenforthat,amongotherpurposes?"Whatrepresentativeswerethosethatwerechosenby"thepeopleoftheunitedcolonies?"Whenandhowweretheychosen?Thosewhodeclaredthecoloniesindependent,werechosenmorethanayearbeforethatevent;theywerechosenbythecoloniesseparately,and,ashasalreadybeenshown,throughtheinstrumentalityoftheirown"governmentsthenorganized";theywerechosen,notforthe"purpose"ofdeclaringthecoloniesindependent,butofprotectingthemagainstoppression,andbringingaboutareconciliationwiththeparentcountry,uponfairterms,ifpossible.(Jefferson"sNotes,1sted.,128,129.)IftherewereanyotherrepresentativesthanthoseconcernedintheDeclarationofIndependence,ifthatactwasperformedbyrepresentativeschosenbythewholepeopleofthecolonies,forthatoranyotherpurpose,ifanysuchrepresentativescouldpossiblyhavebeenchosenbythecoloniesasthenorganized,nohistoricalrecord,thathasyetmetmyview,containsonesyllableofthematter.
Theauthorseemstoattachbutlittleimportancetothefact,thatseveralofthecolonieshadestablishedseparategovernmentsforthemselves,priortotheDeclarationofIndependence.Heregardsthisasoflittleconsequence;
becausehethinksthatthecoloniessoactedonlyinpursuanceoftherecommendationofCongress,andwouldnothave"presumed"todoit,"withoutconsultingCongressuponthesubject";andbecausethegovernmentssoestablishedwere,forthemostpart,designedtobetemporary,andtocontinueonlyduringthecontestwithEngland.Suchrecommendationwasgiveninexpressterms,toNewHampshireandSouthCarolina,inNovember,1775,andtoVirginiainDecemberofthatyear;andonthe10thMay,1776,"itwasresolvedtorecommendtotherespective,assembliesandconventionsoftheunitedcolonieswherenogovernmentsufficienttotheexigenciesoftheiraffairshadbeenestablished,toadoptsuchagovernmentasshould,intheopinionoftherepresentativesofthepeople,bestconducetothehappinessandsafetyoftheirConstituentsinparticular,andofAmericaingeneral."Thepreambletothisresolutionwasnotadoptedtill,the15thMay.(1Elliott"sDebates,80,83.)Itisevidentfromthelanguagehereemployed,thatCongresshadnopoweroverthecoloniesastothismatter,andnorighttoinfluenceorcontrolthemintheexerciseoftheimportantfunctionofformingtheirowngovernments.Itrecommendedonly;andcontemplatingthecoloniesasseparateanddistinct,referredittotheassemblyorconventionofeach,toestablishanyformofgovernmentwhichmightbeacceptabletoitsownpeople.Ofwhatconsequencewasitwhetherthecoloniesnotedupontherecommendationandadviceofothers,ormerelyupontheirownwillandcounsels?Withwhatevermotivetheactwasperformed,itwasoneofsupremeandsovereignpower,andsuchascouldnothavebeenperformedexceptbyasovereignpeople.Andwhetherthegovernmentsoestablishedwasintendedtolastforever,oronlyforalimitedtime,didnotaffectitscharacterasanactofsovereignpower.Inpointoffact,then,thecolonieswhichestablishedsuchgovernmentsdid,bythatveryact,asserttheirsovereigntyandindependence.Theyhadnopowerundertheircharters,tochangetheirgovernments.Theycoulddosoonlybysettingtheirchartersaside,andactingupontheirinherent,sovereignright:andthiswasrevolution.Ineffect,therefore,manyofthecolonieshaddeclaredtheirindependencepriortothe4thJuly,1776;theyhadcommencedtherevolution,andwereconsideredbyEnglandasinastateofrebellion.OfVirginiathisisemphaticallytrue.Herdeclarationofrightswasmadeonthe12thofJune,1776;andherConstitutionwasadoptedonthe28thofthesamemonth.ThisConstitutioncontinueduntil1829.Hersubsequentdeclarationofindependence,onthe4thofJuly,incommonwiththeothercolonies,wasbutamorepublic,thoughnotamoresolemnaffirmationofwhatshehadpreviouslydone;apledgetothewholeworld,thatwhatshehadresolvedoninherseparatecharacter,shewouldunitewiththeothercoloniesinperforming.Shecouldnotdeclareherselffreeandindependentmoredistinctly,inthatform,thanshehadalreadydone,byassertinghersovereignandirresponsiblepower,inthrowingoffherformergovernment,andestablishinganewoneforherself.11
Thereisyetanotherviewofthissubject,whichcannotbeproperlyomitted.Ithasalreadybeenshownthat,priortotheRevolution,thecolonieswereseparateanddistinct,andwerenot,inanypoliticalsense,orforanypurposeofgovernment,"onepeople."ThesovereigntyoverthemwasintheBritishCrown;butthatsovereigntywasnotjointlyoverall,butseparatelyovereach,andmighthavebeenabandonedastosome,andretainedsotoothers.TheDeclarationofIndependencebrokethisconnection.Bythatact,andnotbythesubsequentrecognitionoftheirindependence,thecoloniesbecamefreeStates.Whatthenbecameofthesovereigntyofwhichwespeak?Itcouldnotbeinabeyance;themomentitwaslostbytheBritishCrown,itmusthavevestedsomewhereelse.DoubtlessitvestedintheStatesthemselves.But,astheywereseparateanddistinctascolonies,thesovereigntyoveronecouldnotvest,eitherinwholeorinpart,inanyother.Eachtooktoitselfthatsovereigntywhichappliedtoitself,andforwhichaloneithadcontendedwiththeBritishCrown,towit:thesovereigntyoveritself.ThuseachcolonybecameafreeandsovereignState.
ThisisthecharacterwhichtheyclaimintheverytermsoftheDeclarationofIndependence;inthischaractertheyformedtheColonialGovernment,andinthischaracterthatgovernmentalwaysregardedthem.Indeed,evenintheearliertreatieswithforeignpowers,thedistinctsovereigntyoftheStatesiscarefullyrecognized.Thus,thetreatyofalliancewithFrance,in1778,ismadebetween"themostChristianKingandtheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica,towit:NewHampshire,MassachusettsBay,RhodeIsland,Connecticut,"&c.,enumeratingthemallbyname.ThesameformisobservedinthetreatyofamityandcommercewiththeStatesGeneraloftheUnitedNetherlands,in1782,andinthetreatywithSweden,in1783.IntheconventionwiththeNetherlands,in1782,concerningrecapturedvessels,thenamesoftheStatesarenotrecited,but"theUnitedStatesofAmerica"isthestyleadopted;andsoalsoinsomeothers.Thiscircumstanceshowsthatthetwoformsofexpressionwereconsideredequivalent;andthatforeignnations,intreatingwiththerevolutionarygovernment,consideredthattheytreatedwithdistinctsovereignties,throughtheircommonagent,andnotwithanewnation,composedofallthosesovereigncountriestogether.
Itistrue,theytreatedwiththemjointly,andnotseverally;theyconsideredthemselvesallboundtotheobservanceoftheirstipulations,andtheybelievedthatthecommonauthority,whichwasestablishedbetweenandamongthem,wassufficienttosecurethatobject.TheprovisionalarticleswithGreatBritain,in1782,bywhichourindependencewasacknowledged,proceededuponthesameidea.Thefirst,articledeclares,that"HisBritannicMajestyacknowledgesthesaidUnitedStates,towit:NewHampshire,MassachusettsBay,RhodeIslandandProvidencePlantations,Connecticut,NewYork,NewJersey,Pennsylvania,Delaware,Maryland,Virginia,NorthCarolina,SouthCarolinaandGeorgia,tobefree,sovereignandindependentStatesthathetreatswiththemassuch,"&c.Thustheveryact,bywhichtheirformersovereignreleasesthemfromtheirallegiancetohim,confirmstoeachonebynamethesovereigntywithinitsownlimits,andacknowledgesittobeafree,sovereign,andindependentState;united,indeed,withalltheothers,butnotasformingwiththemtinynewandseparatenation.
Thelanguageemployedisnotsuitedtoconveyanyotheridea.Ifithadbeeninthecontemplationoftheparties,thattheStateshadmergedthemselvesintoasinglenation,somethinglikethefollowingformulawouldnaturallyhavesuggesteditselfasproper:"HisBritannicMajestyacknowledgesthatNewHampshire,MassachusettsBay,&c.,formercoloniesofGreatBritainandnowunitedtogetherasonepeople,areafree,sovereignandindependentState,"&c.Thedifferencebetweenthetwoformsofexpression,andthestrictadaptationofeachtothestateofthingswhichitcontemplates,willbeapparenttoeveryreader.
Itrequiresstrongandplainprooftoauthorizeustosay,thatanationoncesovereignhasceasedtobeso.AndyetJudgeStoryrequiresusto,believethisofthecolonies,althoughheacknowledgesthathecannottell,withanydegreeofconfidenceorprecision,when,how,ortowhatextentthesovereignty,whichtheyacquiredbydeclaringtheirindependence,wassurrendered.Accordingtohim,thecoloniesaretobepresumedtohaveyieldedthissovereigntytoagovernmentestablishedbythemselvesforaspecialandtemporarypurpose,whichexistedonlyattheirwill,andbytheiraidandsupport;whosepowerswerewhollyundefined,andforthemostpartexercisedbyusurpationonitspart,andlegitimatedonlybytheacquiescenceofthosewhoappointedit;whoseauthoritywaswithoutanyadequatesanctionwhichitcoulditselfapply,andwhich,astoalltheimportantfunctionsofsovereignty,wasamerename?theshadowwithoutthesubstance!Ifthefactwasreallyso,Iventuretoaffirmthatthehistoryoftheworldaffordsnosimilarinstanceoffollyandinfatuation.12CHAPTERVI.THEARTICLESOFCONFEDERATIONDONOTIMPAIRTHESOVEREIGNTYOFTHESTATES,NORCONSOLIDATETHEMINTOONEPEOPLE.Whatevermayhavebeentheconditionofthecoloniespriorto1781,thereisnoroomfordoubtonthesubject,afterthefinalratificationoftheArticlesofConfederationinthatyear.Thosearticlesdeclarethat"eachStateretainsitssovereignty,freedomandindependence,andeverypower,jurisdictionandright,whichisnotbythisconfederationexpresslydelegatedtotheUnitedStates,inCongressassembled."Theobviousconstructionofthisclauserequiresthatweshouldapplytheselatterwordsonlyto"powers,jurisdictionandrights";someofwhich,asenjoyedbytheStatesunderthepreviousgovernment,wereclearlysurrenderedbytheArticlesofConfederation.Buttheirentiresovereignty,theirentirefreedom,andtheirentireindependence,arereserved,forthesearenotpartible.Indeed,thisisclearenough,fromtheprovisionsofthatinstrument,which,throughout,contemplatetheStatesasfree,sovereignandindependent.13Itissingular,too,thatitshouldescapetheobservationofanyone,thattheveryfactofadoptingthosearticles,andthecoursepursuedindoingso,attest,withequalclearnessandstrength,theprevioussovereigntyandindependenceoftheStates.WhathadtheStatesintheirseparatecharactertodowiththatact,iftheyformedaltogether"onepeople?"AndyettheStates,andtheStatesalone,performedit,eachactingforitself,andbindingitself.ThearticleswereconfirmedbytenStates,asearlyas1778,byanotherin1779,andbyanotherin1780;andyettheywerenotobligatoryuntilMarylandaccededtothem,in1781.NothinglessthantheratificationofthembyalltheStates,eachactingseparatelyforitself,wasdeemedsufficienttogivethemanybindingforceorauthority.
Thereismuchforceandmeaningintheword"retains,"asitoccursintheclauseabovequoted.Nothingcanproperlybesaidtoberetained,whichwasnotpossessedbefore;andofcoursetheStatespossessedbefore"sovereignty,freedom,andindependence."Thesetheyretainedwithoutanyqualification,orlimitation,andtheyalsoretainedevery"power,jurisdiction,andright,"whichtheydidnotthen,expresslysurrender.
Iftheseviewsonthesubjectbenotwhollydeceptive,JudgeStoryhashazarded,withoutduecaution,theopinionthatthecoloniesformed"onepeople,"eitherbeforeoraftertheDeclarationofIndependence,andthattheyarenottoberegardedassovereignStatesafterthatevent.Formyself,Iprofessmyutterinabilitytoperceive,intheircondition,anynearerapproachtopoliticalpersonalityorindividuality,thanmaybefoundinamereleagueorconfederationbetweensovereignandindependentStates;
andaverylooseconfederationtheirsundoubtedlywas.14CHAPTERVII.THECONSTITUTIONDIDNOTCHANGETHESOVEREIGNATTITUDEOFTHESTATES,ORCONSOLIDATETHEMINTOANATIONALGOVERNMENTThethirddivisionofJudgeStory"sworkcommenceswithahistoryoftheadoptionoftheConstitution.Thisalsoisgiveninanabridgedform;butitomitsnothingwhichcanbeconsideredmaterialtotheinquiry.Perhapstheauthorhasfallenintooneerror,animportantone,certainly,instatingthat"atthetimeandplaceappointed,therepresentativesoftwelveStatesassembled."WhenthedeputiesfirstmetinPhiladelphia,inMay,1787,therepresentativesofonlynineStatesappeared;theywere,soonafter,joinedbythoseofthreeothers.TheauthornextproceedstostatethevariousobjectionswhichwereurgedagainsttheConstitution,withtherepliesthereto;toexaminethenatureofthatinstrumenttoascertainwhetheritbeacompactornot;toinquirewhoisthefinaljudgeorinterpreterinConstitutionalcontroversies;tolaydownrulesofinterpretation;and,finally,toexaminetheConstitutioninitsseveraldepartmentsandseparateclauses.Intheexecutionofthispartofhistaskhehasdisplayedgreatresearch,laboriousindustry,andextensivejudiciallearning.ThebriefsummarywhichhehasgivenoftheargumentsbywhichtheConstitutionwasassailedontheonehand,anddefendedontheother,isnotonlyinterestingasmatterofhistory,butaffordsgreataidinunderstandingthatinstrument.
Weshouldbecareful,however,nottoattachtothesediscussionsanundueimportance.Allthemembersofthevariousconventionsdidnotengageinthedebates,and,ofcourse,wehavenomeansofdeterminingbywhatprocessofreasoningtheywereledtotheirconclusions.Andwecannotreasonablysupposethatthedebatersalwaysexpressedtheirdeliberateandwellweighedopinionsinallthearguments,directandcollateral,bywhichtheysoughttoachieveasinglegreatpurpose.Wearenot,therefore,toconsidertheConstitutionastheonethingortheother,merelybecausesomeoftheframers,orsomeoftheadoptersofit,chosetocharacterizeitintheirdebates.Theirargumentsarevaluableasguidestoourjudgments,butnotasauthoritytobindthem.