第1章

INTRODUCTIONBYTHEEDITOR.TheauthorofthisvolumewasconsideredoneoftheablestlegalmindsintheUnitedStates.HestudiedlawunderWilliamWirt,theeminentauthoroftheLifeofPatrickHenry,andhispracticedprofessionwithgreatsuccessfrom1810to1824.Afteranintervalofretirement,heheldahighjudicialpositionasJudgeoftheGeneralCourtofVirginia,from1826to1841;

atwhichtimeheenteredMr.Tyler"sCabinetasSecretaryoftheNavy.

OnMr.Webster"sretirement,inthespringof1843,JudgeUpshursucceededhimasSecretaryofState.Onthe28thofFebruary1844,theexplosionofthegreatgun("Peacemaker")onboardthesteamerPrincetonkilledthiseminentjuristandstatesman.Hisreputationinprivatelifewasasspotlessashispublicfamewasexaltedandunrivaled.

ThisreviewofJudgeStory"sCommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesisperhapstheablestanalysisofthenatureandcharacteroftheFederalGovernmentthathaseverbeenpublished.Ithasremainedunanswered.Indeed,wearenotawarethatanyattempthasbeenmadetoinvalidatethesoundnessofitsreasoning.Asalawwriter,JudgeStoryhasbeenregardedasoneoftheablestofhisschool,whichwasthatofthestraightesttypeof"Federalists"oftheelderAdams"sparty.Hiscommentariesareagooddealmarredwiththepeculiarpartisandoctrinesofthatschoolofpoliticians;indeed,theymaybelookeduponasapleafortheseverepoliticalprincipleswhichruledtheadministrationofPresidentJohnAdams.TheAlienandSeditionLaws,whichhavelongsincepassedintoaby-wordofreproach,willstillfindabundantsupportinJudgeStory"sCommentaries.HeperpetuallyinsistedonconstruingtheConstitutionfromthestandpointofthatsmallanddefeatedpartyintheFederalConventionwhichwantedtoformagovernmentonthemodeloftheEnglishmonarchyineverythingbutthename.Thispartywaspowerfulinrespectabilityandtalents,butweakorfewinnumbers?andafteritwassosignallydefeatedintheConstitutionalConvention,itstillheldontoitsmonarchicalprinciples,andsoughttoinvestthenewgovernmentwithkinglypowers,notwithstandingtheConstitutionhadbeenconstructeduponprinciplesentirelyoppositetoitsdoctrine.InaletterofU.S.SenatorJohnLangdon,ofNewHampshiretoSamuelRinggold,ofthedateofOctober10th,1800,hesays:

"Mr.Adamscertainlyexpressedhimselfthathehoped,orexpectedtoseethedaywhenMr.Taylor,andhisfriend,Mr.Giles,wouldbeconvincedthatthepeopleofAmericawouldneverbehappywithoutahereditaryChiefMagistrateandSenateoratleastforlife."Mr.Rose,aSenatorfromPennsylvania,andafriendoftheAdamsparty,leftthetableofMr.Hollines,ofPhiladelphia,when"theConstitutionoftheUnitedStates"wasgivenasatoast.JohnWood,thehistorianofthetime,speakingoftheprinciplesoftheFederalists,says:"TheybestowedunboundedpanegyricsuponAlexanderHamilton,becausethisgentlemanactedthepartofPrimeMinistertothePresident.Theythoughttheadministrationandthegovernmentoughttobeconfoundedandidentified;thattheadministrationwasthegovernment,andthegovernmenttheadministration;andthatthepeopleoughttobowintamesubmissiontoitswhimandcaprice."WritingofMr.Adams,Jeffersonsays:"Mr.AdamshadoriginallybeenaRepublican.Theglareofroyaltyandnobility,duringhismissioninEngland,hadmadehimbelievetheirfascinationtobeanecessaryingredientingovernment.HisbookontheAmericanConstitutionhadmadeknownhispoliticalbias.HewastakenupbythemonarchicalFederalistsinhisabsence,andwasbythem,madetobelievethatthegeneraldispositionofourcitizenswasfavorabletomonarchy."

AtadinnergivenbyMr.Jefferson,whenhewasamemberofWashington"sCabinet,hedeclaresthat,"afterdinner,Mr.Adamssaid:"PurgetheBritishConstitutionofitscorruption,andgivetoitspopularbranchequalityofrepresentation,anditwouldbethemostperfectConstitutioneverdevisedbythewitofman."Hamiltonreplied:"Purgeitofitscorruption,andgivetoitspopularbranchequalityofrepresentation,anditwouldbecomethenanimpracticablegovernment.Asitstandsatpresent,withallitssupposeddefects,itisthemostperfectgovernmentthateverexisted.""

Mr.Jeffersonadds:"Hamiltonwasnotonlyamonarchist,butforamonarchybottomedoncorruption."TheFederalistshavingamajorityinCongress,passedanacttocontinueinforceduringtheadministrationofMr.Adams,declaringthat"ifanypersonshouldwriteorpublish,orcausetobepublished,anylibelagainsttheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates,oreitherHouseofCongress,oragainstthePresident,heshallbepunishedbyafinenotexceedingtwothousanddollars,andbyimprisonmentnotexceedingtwoyears."

Agreatmanyeditors,andothergentlemen,wereimprisonedunderthisact.

EventoridiculethePresidentwaspronouncedbythecorruptpartisanjudgesaviolationofthelaw.MenwerebeatenalmosttodeathforneglectingtopullofftheirhatswhenthePresidentwaspassing,andeverymanwhodidnotinstantlyprostratehimselfbeforetheensignsofFederalroyalty,wasdenouncedastheenemyofhiscountry.Thefollowingletter,addressedtoPresidentJohnAdamsbythemerchantsofBoston,showstowhatlengthsthatpartyhaddraggedthepublicmindinthedirectionofmonarchy:"We,thesubscribers,inhabitantsandcitizensofBoston,intheStateofMassachusetts,deeplyimpressedwiththealarmingsituationofourcountry,andconvincedofthenecessityofunitingwithfirmnessatthisinterestingcrisis,begleavetoexpresstoyou,theChiefMagistrateandsupremerulerovertheUnitedStates,ourfullestapprobationofallthemeasures,externalandinternal,youhavepleasedtoadopt,underdirectionofdivineauthority.Webegleavealsotoexpressthehighandelevatedopinionweentertainofyourtalents,yourvirtue,yourwisdomandyourprudence;andourfixedresolutiontosupport,attheriskofourlivesandfortunes,suchmeasuresasyoumaydetermineupontobenecessaryforpromotingandsecuringthehonorandhappinessofAmerica."AnyonecanseethatmenwhocouldaddressthePresidentafterthisfashion,hadagreatdeallessrespectfortherestraintsandlimitationsofawrittenConstitution,thanforthewillandforceofindividualpower.ThatwasthedriftofacertainportionofpublicopinioninAmericaatthattime.

Butthetyrannicalexcessesofthatpartysoonbroughtitintosuchodium,thatitwasdrivenfrompowerbytheelectionofMr.JeffersontothePresidency.

Thoughdefeated,itspartisansneverceasedtolabortodragtheConstitutionawayfromitsDemocraticfoundations,bygivingtheConstitutionaconstructionutterlyantagonistictotheintentionsoftheConventionwhichframedandoftheStateswhichadoptedit.ThegreatviceoftheFederalistsconsistedindesiringtoclothetheFederalGovernmentwithalmostmonarchicalpowers;

whereastheStateshadcarefullyandresolutelyreservedthegreatmassofpoliticalpowertothemselves.ThepowerswhichtheydelegatedtotheFederalGovernmentwerefew,andweregeneralintheircharacter.Thosewhichtheyreservedembracedtheiroriginalandinalienablesovereignty,whichnoStateimagineditwassurrenderingwhenit,adoptedtheConstitution.

Mr.Madisondweltwithgreatforceuponthefactthat"adelegatedisnotasurrenderedpower."TheStatessurrenderednopowerstotheFederalGovernment.

Theyonlydelegatedthem.ThepowersoftheStatesareoriginal.ThoseoftheFederalGovernmentareonlyderivedandsecondary;andtheyweredelegated,notforthepurposeofaggrandizingtheFederalGovernment,butforthesolepurposeofprotectingtherightsandsovereigntyof"theseveralStates."TheFederalGovernmentwasformedbytheStatesfortheirownbenefit.TheFederalGovernmentissimplyanagency,commissionedbythe"severalStates"fortheirownconvenienceandsafety.IntheConventionofVirginia,PatrickHenrysaid:"Liberty,sir,istheprimaryobject.

Liberty,thegreatestofallearthlyblessings?giveusthatpreciousjewel,andyoumaytakeawayeverythingelse."And,withaneloquencemorepowerfulthanthatwhichshookthethroneofMacedon,hedemonstratedthatthebattlesoftheRevolutionwerefought,nottomake"agreatandmightyempire,"but"forliberty."Itwasforliberty?forthelibertyofthepeopleofthe"severalStates"thattheFederalGovernmentwasestablished.

Notforthekinglygrandeurandpowerofgovernment,butforthehappiness,safetyandlibertyof"thepeopleoftheseveralStates."NothingcouldpossiblybestrongerthanthedeterminationpervadingthemindoftheFederalConventiontosacrificenoiotaoftheessentialsovereigntyoftheStatesintheformationofthegeneralUnion.ThisfeelingwasmosthappilyexpressedbyChiefJusticeEllsworth,ofConnecticut,in,theConventionthatframedourConstitution,inthefollowingwords:"Iwantdomestichappinessaswellasgeneralsecurity.AGeneralGovernmentwillnevergrantmethis,asitcannotknowmywants,norrelievemydistress.MyStateisonlyasoneoutofthirteen.Canthey,theGeneralGovernment,gratifymywishes?MyhappinessdependsasmuchontheexistenceofmyStateGovernmentasanew-borninfantdependsuponitsmotherfornourishment."IntheConventionofMassachusetts,FisherAmessaid:"AconsolidationoftheStateswouldsubvertthenewConstitution,andagainstwhichthisarticleisourbestsecurity.Toomuchprovisioncannotbemadeagainstconsolidation.TheStateGovernmentsrepresentthewishesandfeelings,andlocalinterestsofthepeople.TheyarethesafeguardandornamentoftheConstitution;theywillprotracttheperiodofourliberties;theywillaffordashelteragainsttheabuseofpower,andwillbethenaturalavengersofourviolatedrights."SuchweretheviewsandsentimentsofthemenwhoframedandwhoadoptedtheFederalConstitution.ButJudgeStorybelongedtoanotherschoolofpoliticians,andhisCommentariesupontheConstitutionwerewrittenintheinterestsoftheConsolidationists,whohaveeverinsistedongivingthatinstrumentaninterpretationinharmonywiththeirwishesandideas.

ThisreviewofJudgeUpshur,however,doesnotleaveasinglepointoftheFederalisticheresyunanswered.Itwilleverstandasatext-bookofthetruetheoryofourgovernment.Weareconfidentthatnobookhaseverappearedinthiscountrywhichsothoroughlymeetsthedemandsofthepresenthour.Withthisbookinhishand,theDemocraticstatesmanororatorisarmedateverypointagainstthesophistriesofthefoesofStatesovereigntyandself-government.Thereisnovitalpointwhichitdoesnotdiscussandsettleuponthebasisofinvulnerabletruth.

TheNoteswhichwehaveadded,wehope,willbefoundusefultotheunprofessionalreader.TheywillshowthattheauthorsreasoningisconfirmedbyourConstitutionalhistoryandbytheearlydecisionsoftheSupremeCourt.

Ineveryinstance,ourownNotesaredistinguishedfromthoseoftheauthorbyourinitials?

"C.C.B."PREFACEBYTHEAUTHOR.Thebooktowhichthefollowingpagesrelatehasbeenforseveralyearsbeforethepublic.Ithasbeenreviewedbysomeoftheprincipalperiodicalsofthecountry,andrecommendedinthestrongesttermstopublicfavor.

Ihavenodispositiontodetractfromitsmeritsasavaluablecompendiumofhistoricalfacts,oraspresentingjustviewsoftheConstitutioninmanyrespects.Myattentionhasbeendirectedtoitspoliticalprinciplesalone,andmysolepurposehasbeentoinquireintothecorrectnessofthoseprinciples,sofarastheyrelatetothetruenatureandcharacterofourFederalGovernment,Itmaywellexcitesurprise,thatsoelaborateaworkasthisofJudgeStory,andonesowellcalculatedtoinfluencepublicopinion,shouldhaveremainedsolongunnoticedbythosewhodonotconcurintheauthor"sviews.

Noonecanregretthiscircumstance,morethanIdo;forIwouldwillinglyhavedevolveduponablerhandsthetaskwhichInowhaveundertaken.I

offernoapologyforthemannerinwhichthattaskhasbeenperformed.

Itisenoughformetosay,thatthereader,howsoeverfavorablehisopinionofthisessaymaybewillnotbemoresensibleofitsimperfectionsthanIam.IknowthattheactualpracticeoftheFederalGovernmentformanyyearspast,andthestrongtendenciesofpublicopinioninfavoroffederalpower,forbidmetohopeforafavorablereception,exceptfromtheveryfewwhostillcherishtheprincipleswhichIhaveendeavoredtoreestablish.

Thefollowingessaywaspreparedaboutthreeyearsago,withaviewtoitspublicationinoneofourperiodicalreviews.Circumstances,whichitisunnecessarytomention,preventedthisfrombeingdone,andtheworkwaslaidasideandforgotten.Myattentionhasbeenagaincalledtoitwithinafewweekspast,andIamnowinducedtogiveittothepublic,underthehopethatitmaynotbewithoutitsinfluenceindirectingtheattentionofthose,whohavenotyetlostallinterestinthesubject,tothetrueprinciplesofourconstitutionofgovernment.

Idonotclaimthemeritoforiginality.Myconclusionsaredrawnfromtheauthenticinformationofhistory,andfromatrainofreasoning,whichwilloccurtoeverymind,onthefactswhichhistorydiscloses.Myobjectwillbeanswered,ifeventhefewbywhomthesepageswillprobablybereadshallbeinducedtore-examine,withasinceredesireaftertruth,thegreatprinciplesuponwhichpoliticalpartiesinourcountrywereoncedivided,butwhichthereismuchreasontofeararenolongerrespected,eveniftheybenotwhollyforgotten.

IdonotofferthisessayasacommentaryontheFederalConstitution.

Havingproposedtomyselfbutasingleobject,Ihaveendeavoredtocompressmymatterwithinassmallacompassaspossible,consistentwithadueregardtoclearness,andaproperreferencetoauthorities,whereauthoritiesarereliedon.THETRUENATUREANDCHARACTER

OFOUR

FEDERALGOVERNMENT.CHAPTERI.THECHARACTEROFJUDGESTORY"SCOMMENTARIESONTHECONSTITUTION.ItcamewithintherangeofJudgeStory"sduties,asDaneProfessorofLawinHarvardUniversity,toexpoundandillustratetheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.Hislecturesuponthatsubjecthavebeenabridgedbyhimself,andpublishedinaseparatevolume.Althoughtheworkisgiventothepublicasanabridgment,itisnevertheless,asitprofessestobe,"afullanalysisandexpositionoftheconstitutionofgovernmentoftheUnitedStatesandpresents,intheopinionoftheauthorhimself,the"leadingdoctrines"oftheoriginal,"sofarastheyarenecessarytoajustunderstandingoftheactualprovisionsoftheConstitution."Theauthorprofessestohavecompiledit"fortheuseofcollegesandhighschools,"

butasitcontainsalltheimportanthistoricalfacts,andalltheleadingreasonsuponwhichhisownopinionshavebeenbased,andasithasbeenpreparedwithelaboratecareinotherrespects,wemayreasonablysuppose,withoutimpeachinghismodesty,thatheexpectedittobereceivedasacompletework.Itis,indeed,quiteasfullasanysuchworkneedstobe,foranypurpose,except,perhaps,theveryfirstlessonstothestudentofconstitutionallaw.Thepoliticianandthejuristmayconsultit,withacertaintyoffindingalltheprominenttopicsofthesubjectfullydiscussed.

AworkpresentingaproperanalysisandcorrectviewsoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStateshaslongbeenadesideratumwiththepublic.Itistruethatthelastfifteenyearshavenotbeenunfruitfulincommentariesuponthatinstrument;suchcommentaries,however,ashave,forthemostpartmetadeservedfate,inimmediateandtotaloblivion.Mostofthemhaveservedonlytothrowridiculeuponthesubjectwhichtheyprofessedtoillustrate.Afewhaveappeared,however,ofamuchhigherorder,andbearingthestampoftalent,learning,andresearch.Amongthese,theworkbeforeus,andtheCommentariesofChiefJusticeKent,holdthefirstrank.

Bothoftheseworksare,asitisnaturaltheyshouldbe,stronglytincturedwiththepoliticalopinionsoftheirrespectiveauthors;andasthereisaperfectconcurrencebetweentheminthisrespect,theirjointauthoritycanscarcelyfailtoexertastronginfluenceuponpublicopinion.Itismuchtoberegrettedthatsomeone,amongthemanywhodifferfromthemintheirviewsoftheConstitution,andwhopossessalltherequisitequalificationsforthetask,shouldnothavethoughtitnecessarytovindicatehisownpeculiartenets,inaworkequallyelaborate,andpresentingjustclaimstopublicattention.Theauthorityofgreatnamesisofsuchimposingweight,thatmerereasonandargumentcanrarelycounterpoiseitinthepublicmind;anditspreponderanceisnoteasilyovercome,exceptbyaddinglikeauthoritytotheweightofreasonandargument,intheopposingscale.

Ihopeitisnotyettoolateforthissuggestiontohaveitseffectuponthosetowhomitisaddressed.

ThefirstcommentaryupontheConstitution,theFederalist,isdecidedlythebest,whichhasyetappeared.Thewritersofthatbookwereactorsinalltheinterestingscenesoftheperiod,andtwoofthemweremembersoftheconventionwhichformedtheConstitution.Addedtothis,theirextensiveinformation,theircommandingtalents,andtheirexperienceingreatpublicaffairs,qualifiedthem,inapeculiardegree,forthetaskwhichtheyundertook.Nevertheless,theirgreatobjectwastorecommendtheConstitutiontothepeople,atatimewhenitwasveryuncertainwhethertheywouldadoptitornot;andhencetheirwork,althoughitcontainsaveryfullandphilosophicalanalysisofthesubject,comestousasamereargumentinsupportofafavoritemeasure,and,forthatreason,doesnotalwayscommandourentireconfidence.Besides,theConstitutionwasanditstruecharacter,whichistobelearnedonlyfromitspracticaloperation,couldonlybeconjectured.Muchhasbeendeveloped,intheactualpracticeofthegovernment,whichnopoliticianofthatdaycouldeitherhaveforeseenorimagined.Newquestionshavearisen,notthenanticipated,anddifficultiesandembarrassments,whollyunforeseen,havesprungfromneweventsintherelationoftheStatestooneanother,andtothegeneralgovernment.HencetheFederalistcannotbereliedon,asfullandsafeauthorityinallcases.

Itis,indeed,matterofjustsurprise,andaffordingthestrongestproofoftheprofoundwisdomandfar-seeingsagacityoftheauthorsofthatwork,thattheirviewsoftheConstitutionhavebeensooftenjustifiedinthecourseofitspracticaloperation.Still,however,itmustbeadmittedthattheFederalistisdefectiveinsomeimportantparticulars,anddeficientinmanymore.TheConstitutionismuchbetterunderstoodatthisdaythanatthetimeofitsadoption.Thisisnottrueofthegreatprinciplesofcivilandpoliticalliberty,whichlie,atthefoundationofthatinstrument;

butitisemphaticallytrueofsomeofitsprovisions,whichwereconsideredatthetimeascomparativelyunimportant,orsoplainasnottobemisunderstood,butwhichhavebeenshown,bysubsequentevents,tobepregnantwiththegreatestdifficulties,andtoexertthemostimportantinfluenceuponthewholecharacterofthegovernment.ContemporaryexpositionsoftheConstitution,therefore,althoughtheyshouldbereceivedasauthorityinsomecases,andmayenlightenourjudgmentsinmostothers,cannotberegardedassafeguides,bytheexpounderofthatinstrumentatthisday.ThesubjectdemandsourattentionnowasstronglyasitdidbeforetheFederalistwaswritten.1

Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thattheworknowunderconsiderationshouldhavebeenhailedwithpleasureandreceivedwitheveryfavorabledisposition.JudgeStoryfillsahighstationinthejudiciaryoftheUnitedStates,andhasacquiredacharacter,fortalentsandlearning,whichensuresrespecttowhateverhemaypublishunderhisownname.Hisduty,asaJudgeoftheSupremeCourt,hasdemandedofhimfrequentinvestigationsofthenicestquestionsofconstitutionallaw;andhislongserviceinthatcapacityhasprobablybroughtunderhisrevieweveryprovisionofthatinstrumentinregardtowhichanydifferenceofopinionhasprevailed.Assistedashehasbeenbytheargumentsoftheablestcounsel,andbythejointdeliberationsoftheotherjudgesofthecourt,itwouldbeindeedwonderful,ifheshouldhazardhiswell-earnedreputationasajurist,uponanyhastyorunweighedopinion,uponsubjectssograveandimportant.Hehasalsobeenanattentiveobserverofpoliticalevents,andalthoughbynomeansobtrusiveinpolitics,hasyetapoliticalcharacter,scarcelylessdistinguishedthanhischaracterasajurist.Toall,theseclaimstopublicattentionandrespect,maybeaddedareputationforlaboriousresearch,andforcalmandtemperatethinking.AworkontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,emanatingfromsuchasource,cannotfailtoexertastronginfluenceuponpublicopinion,anditis,therefore,peculiarlyimportantthatitsrealcharactershouldbeunderstood.Whatevermaybethecastofitspoliticalopinions,itcanscarcelyfailtocontainmanyvaluabletruths,andmuchinformationwhichwillbefoundusefultoallclassesofreaders.And,sofarasitspoliticalopinionsareconcerned,itisofthehighestimportancetoguardthepublicmindagainsttheinfluencewhichitserrors,iferrorstheybe,mayborrowfromthemereauthorityofthedistinguishednameunderwhichtheyareadvanced.

Theplanoftheworkbeforeusisveryjudicious.InordertoacorrectunderstandingoftheConstitution,itisabsolutelynecessarytounderstandthesituationoftheStatesbeforeitwasadopted.Theauthor,actinguponthisidea,distributeshisworkintothreegreatdivisions."Thefirstwillembraceasketchofthecharters,constitutionalhistory,andanterevolutionaryjurisprudenceoftheColonies.ThesecondwillembracetheconstitutionalhistoryoftheStates,duringtheRevolution,andtherise,progress,decline,andfalloftheConfederation.ThethirdwillembracethehistoryoftheriseandadoptionoftheConstitution,andafullexpositionofallitsprovisions,withthereasonsonwhichtheywererespectivelyfounded,theobjectionsbywhichtheywererespectivelyassailed,andsuchillustrationsdrawnfromcontemporaneousdocuments,andthesubsequentoperationsofthegovernment,asmaybestenablethereadertoestimateforhimself,thetruevalueofeach."Thisplanisatoncecomprehensiveandanalytical.

Itembraceseverytopicnecessarytoafullunderstandingofthesubject,while,atthesametime,itpresentstheminthenaturalorderofinvestigation.

Itdisplaysaperfectacquaintancewiththetruenatureofthesubject,andpromiseseveryresultwhichthereadercandesire.ThefirstpartrelatestoasubjectofthegreatestinteresttoeveryAmerican,andwellworthythestudyofphilosophicalenquirers,allovertheworld.Thereisnot,withinthewholerangeofhistory,aneventmoreimportant,withreferencetoitseffectsupontheworldatlarge,thanthesettlementoftheAmericanColonies.Itdidnotfallwithintheplanofourauthortoenquireveryextensively,orveryminutely,intothemerehistoryofeventswhichdistinguishedthatextraordinaryenterprise.Sofarasthefirstsettlersmayberegardedasactuatedbyavarice,byambition,orbyanyotheroftheusualmotivesoftheadventurer,theirdeedsbelongtotheprovinceofthehistorianalone.We,however,mustcontemplatetheminanotherandahighercharacter.

Adeepandsolemnfeelingofreligion,andanattachmentto,andanunderstandingof,theprinciplesofcivilliberty,farinadvanceoftheageinwhichtheylived,suggestedtomostofthemtheideaofseekinganewhomeandfoundingnewinstitutionsinthewesternworld.Tothisspiritweareindebtedforallthatisfreeandliberalinourpresentpoliticalsystems,itwouldbeaworkofverygreatinterest,andaltogetherworthyofthepoliticalhistorian,totracethegreatprinciplesofourinstitutionsbacktotheirsources.Theiroriginwouldprobablybediscoveredataperiodmuchmoreremotethanisgenerallysupposed.Weshouldderivefromsuchareviewmuchlightintheinterpretationofthosepartsofoursystemsastowhichwehavenopreciserulesinthelanguageofourconstitutionsofgovernment.

ItistoberegrettedthatJudgeStorydidnottakethisviewofthesubject.

Althoughnotstrictlyrequiredbytheplanofhiswork,itwas,nevertheless,altogetherconsistentwithit,andwouldhaveaddedmuchtoitsinterestwiththegeneralreader.Hissourcesofhistoricalinformationwereample,andhishabitsandthecharacterofhismindfittedhimwellforsuchaninvestigation,andforpresentingtheresultinananalyticalandphilosophicalform.Hehaschosen,however,toconfinehimselfwithinmuchnarrowerlimits.

Yet,evenwithinthoselimits,hehasbroughttogetheravarietyofhistoricalfactsofgreatinterest,andhaspresentedtheminacondensedform,wellcalculatedtomakealastingimpressiononthememory.Thebriefsketchwhichhehasgivenofthesettlementoftheseveralcolonies,andofthechartersfromwhichtheyderivedtheirrightsandpowersasseparategovernments,containsmuchtoenableustounderstandfullytherelationwhichtheyboretooneanotherandtothemothercountry.ThisisthetruestartingpointintheinvestigationofthosevexedquestionsofconstitutionallawwhichhavesolongdividedpoliticalpartiesintheUnitedStates.Itwouldseemalmostimpossiblethatanytwoopinionscouldexistuponthesubject;

andyetthehistoricalfacts,uponwhichaloneallpartiesmustrely,althoughwellauthenticatedandcomparativelyrecent,havenotbeenunderstoodbyallmenalike.Ourauthorwaswellawareoftheimportanceofsettlingthisquestionatthethresholdofhiswork.ManyofthepowerswhichhavebeenclaimedfortheFederalGovernment,bythepoliticalpartytowhichhebelongs,dependuponadenialofthatseparateexistence,andseparatesovereigntyandindependence,whichtheopposingpartyhasuniformlyclaimedfortheStates.Itis,therefore,highlyimportanttothecorrectsettlementofthiscontroversy,thatweshouldascertaintheprecisepoliticalconditionoftheseveralcoloniespriortotheRevolution.ThiswillenableustodeterminehowfarJudgeStoryhasdonejusticetohissubject,intheexecutionofthefirstpartofhisplan;andbytracingthecoloniesfromtheirfirstestablishmentassuch,throughthevariousstagesoftheirprogressuptotheadoptionoftheFederalConstitution,weshallbegreatlyaidedinformingacorrectopinionastothetruecharacterofthatinstrument.CHAPTERII.THENON-RELATIONOFTHECOLONIESTOEACHOTHER?nbsp;

THEYWERENOTONEPEOPLE.ItappearstobeafavoriteobjectofJudgeStorytoimpressuponthemindofthereader,attheverycommencementofhiswork,theideathatthepeopleoftheseveralcolonieswere,astosomeobjects,whichhehasnotexplained,andtosomeextentwhichhehasnotdefined,"onepeople."Thisisnotonlyplainlyinferablefromthegeneralscopeofthebook,butisexpresslyassertedinthefollowingpassage"Butalthoughthecolonieswereindependentofeachotherinrespecttotheirdomesticconcerns,theywerenotwhollyalientoeachother.Onthecontrary,theywerefellow-subjects,andformanypurposesonepeople.Everycolonisthadarighttoinhabit,ifhepleased,inanyothercolony,andasaBritishsubjecthewascapableofinheritinglandsbydescentineveryothercolony.Thecommercialintercourseofthecolonies,too,wasregulatedbythegenerallawsoftheBritishempire,andcouldnotberestrainedorobstructedbycoloniallegislation.

TheremarksofMr.ChiefJusticeJayareequallyjustandstriking:"AllthepeopleofthiscountrywerethensubjectsoftheKingofGreatBritain,andowedallegiancetohim,andallthecivilauthoritythenexistingorexercisedhereflowedfromtheheadoftheBritishempire.Theywereinastrictsensefellow-subjectsandinavarietyofrespectsonepeople.

WhentheRevolutioncommenced,thepatriotsdidnotassertthatonlythesameaffinityandsocialconnectionsubsistedbetweenthepeopleofthecolonies,whichsubsistedbetweenthepeopleofGaul,Britain,andSpain,whileRomanprovinces,towit,onlythataffinityandsocialconnectionwhichresultsfromthemerecircumstanceofbeinggovernedbythesameprince.""

Inthispassagetheauthortakeshisgrounddistinctlyandboldly.Thefirstideasuggestedbytheperusalofitis,thathediscernedveryclearlythenecessityofestablishinghisposition,butdidnotdiscernquitesoclearlybywhatprocessofreasoninghewastoaccomplishit.Ifthepassagestoodalone,itwouldbefairtosupposethathedidnotdesigntoextendtheideaofaunityamongthepeopleofthecoloniesbeyondtheseveralparticularswhichhehasenumerated.Justicetohimrequiresthatweshouldsupposethis;for,ifithadbeenotherwise,hewouldscarcelyhavefailedtosupporthisopinionbypointingoutsomeoneofthe"manypurposes,"

forwhichthecolonieswere,inhisviewofthem,"onepeople."ThesamemaybesaidofMr.ChiefJusticeJay.Healsohasspecifiedseveralparticularsinwhichhesupposedthisunitytoexist,andarrivesattheconclusion,thatthepeopleoftheseveralcolonieswere,"inavarietyofrespects,onepeople."Inwhatrespecttheywere"one,"exceptthosewhichhehasenumerated,hedoesnotsayandofcourseitisfairtopresumethathemeanttorestthejustnessofhisconclusionuponthemalone.Thehistoricalfactsstatedbybothofthesegentlemenaretrulystated;butitissurprisingthatitdidnotoccurtosuchcoolreasoners,thateveryoneofthemistheresultoftherelationbetweenthecoloniesandthemothercountry,andnottheresultoftherelationbetweenthecoloniesthemselves.EveryBritishsubject,whetherborninEnglandproperorinacolony,hasarighttoresideanywherewithintheBritishrealm;andthisbytheforceofBritishlaws.SuchistherightofeveryEnglishman,whereverhemaybefound.

Astotherightofthecolonisttoinheritlandsbydescentinanyothercolonythanhisown,JudgeStoryhimselfinformsusthatitbelongedtohim"asaBritishsubject."Thatright,indeed,isinconsequenceofhisallegiance.BythepolicyoftheBritishconstitutionandlaws,itisnotpermittedthatthesoilofherterritoryshouldbelongtoanyfromwhomshecannotdemandallthedutiesofallegiance.ThisallegianceisthesameinallthecoloniesasitisinEnglandproperand,whereveritexists,thecorrespondentrighttoownandinheritthesoilattaches.Therighttoregulatecommercialintercourseamonghercoloniesbelongs,ofcourse,totheparentcountry,unlesssherelinquishesitbysomeactofherown;

andnosuchactisshowninthepresentcase.Onthecontrary,althoughthatrightwasresistedforatimebysomeoftheAmericancolonies,itwasfullyyielded,asourauthorhimselfinformsus,byallthoseofNewEngland,andIamnotinformedthatitwasdeniedbyanyother.Indeed,thesupremacyofParliament,inmostmattersoflegislationwhichconcernedthecolonies,wasgenerally?nay,universally?admitteduptotheveryeveoftheRevolution.Itistrue,therighttotaxthecolonieswasdenied,butthiswasuponawhollydifferentprinciple.ItwastherightofeveryBritishsubjecttobeexemptfromtaxation,exceptbyhisownconsent;

andasthecolonieswerenot,andfromtheirlocalsituationcouldnotbe,representedinParliament,therightofthatbodytotaxthemwasdenied,uponafundamentalprincipleofEnglishliberty.Buttherightofthemothercountrytoregulatecommerceamonghercoloniesisofadifferentcharacter,anditneverwasdeniedtoEnglandbyherAmericancolonies,solongasahopeofreconciliationremainedtothem.Inlikemanner,thefactsreliedonbyMr.Jay,that"allpeopleofthiscountrywerethensubjectsoftheKingofGreatBritain,andowedallegiancetohim"andthat"allthecivilauthoritythenexistingorexercisedhereflowedfromtheheadoftheBritishempire,"arebuttheusualincidentsofcolonialdependence,andarebynomeanspeculiartothecasehewasconsidering.Theydo,indeed,proveaunitybetweenallthecoloniesandthemothercountry,andshowthatthese,takenaltogether,areinthestrictestsenseoftheterms,"onepeople";butIamatalosstoperceivehowtheyprove,thattwoormorepartsorsubdivisionsofthesameempirenecessarilyconstitute"onepeople."

Ifthisbetrueofthecolonies,itisequallytrueofanytwoormoregeographicalsectionsofEnglandproper;foreveryoneofthereasonsassignedappliesasstrictlytothiscaseastothatofthecolonies.Anytwocountriesmaybe"onepeople,"or"anationdefacto,"iftheycanbemadesobythefactsthattheirpeopleare"subjectsoftheKingofGreatBritain,andoweallegiancetohim,"andthat"allthecivilauthorityexercisedthereinflowsfromtheheadoftheBritishempire."

Itistoberegrettedthattheauthorhasnotgivenushisownviewsofthesourcesfromwhichtheseseveralrightsandpowerswerederived.

Iftheyauthorizehisconclusion,thattherewasanysortofunityamongthepeopleoftheseveralcolonies,distinctfromtheircommonconnectionwiththemothercountry,aspartsofthesameempire,itmustbebecausetheyflowedfromsomethingintherelationbetwixtthecoloniesthemselves,andnotfromtheircommonrelationtotheparentcountry.Norisitenoughthattheserightsandpowersshould,inpointoffact,flowfromtherelationofthecoloniestooneanother;theymustbethenecessaryresultoftheirpoliticalcondition.Evenadmitting,then,thattheywould,underanystateofcircumstances,warranttheconclusionwhichtheauthorhasdrawnfromthem,itdoesnotfollowthattheconclusioniscorrectlydrawninthepresentinstance.Foraughtthathehassaidtothecontrary,therightofeverycolonisttoinhabitandinheritlandsineverycolony,whetherhisownornot,mayhavebeenderivedfrompositivecompactandagreementamongthecoloniesthemselves;andthispresupposesthattheyweredistinctandseparate,andnot"onepeople."Andsofarastherightsofthemothercountryareconcerned,theyexistedinthesameform,andtothesameextent,overeveryothercolonyoftheempire.Didthismakethepeopleofallthecolonies"onepeople?"Ifso,thepeopleofJamaica,theBritishEastIndiapossessions,andtheCanadasare,fortheverysamereason,"onepeople"atthisday.Ifacommonallegiancetoacommonsovereign,andacommonsubordinationtohisjurisdiction,aresufficienttomakethepeopleofdifferentcountries"onepeople,"itisnotperceived(withalldeferencetoMr.ChiefJusticeJay)whythepeopleofGaul,Britain,andSpainmightnothavebeen"onepeople,"whileRomanprovinces,notwithstanding"thepatriots"didnotsayso.Thegeneralrelationbetweenthecoloniesandtheparentcountryisaswellsettledandunderstoodasanyother,anditispreciselythesameinallcases,exceptwherespecialconsentandagreementmayvaryit.Whoever,therefore,wouldprovethatanypeculiarunityexistedbetweentheAmericancolonies,isboundtoshowsomethingintheircharters,orsomepeculiarityintheircondition,toexemptthemfromthegeneralrule.JudgeStorywastoowellacquaintedwiththestateofthefactstomakeanysuchattemptinthepresentcase.TheCongressoftheninecolonies,whichassembledatNewYork,inOctober,1765,declarethatthecolonists"owethesameallegiancetotheCrownofGreatBritain,thatisowingfromhissubjectsbornwithintherealm,andallduesubordinationtothataugustbody,theParliamentofGreatBritain.""Thatthecolonistsareentitledtoalltheinherentrightsandlibertiesofhis[theKing"s]

naturalbornsubjectswithintheKingdomofGreatBritain,"Wehavehereanall-sufficientfoundationoftherightoftheCrowntoregulatecommerceamongthecolonies,andoftherightofthecoloniststoinhabitandtoinheritlandineachandallthecolonies.TheywerenothingmorethantheordinaryrightsandliabilitiesofeveryBritishsubject;and,indeed,themostthatthecoloniesevercontendedforwasanequality,intheserespects,withthesubjectsborninEngland.Thefacts,therefore,uponwhichJudgeStory"sreasoningisfounded,springfromadifferentsourcefromthatfromwhichheiscompelledtoderivethem,inordertosupporthisconclusion.